Fitness Landscapes and the Precautionary Principle: The Geometry of Environmental Risk

The Precautionary Principle is a legal mechanism for managing the environmental risk arising from incomplete scientific knowledge of a proposal's impacts. The Precautionary Principle is applied to actions that carry with them the potential for serious or irreversible environmental change. The model proposed in this paper draws on methods used in a range of disciplines for modeling (potentially highly nonlinear) interactions between multiple parts of a complex system. These methods have been drawn together under the common mathematical umbrella of Fitness Landscape Theory. It is argued that the model, called “Environmental Impact Fitness Landscapes,” allows statements about the sensitivity of the gross effect from a set of impacts to be made when the number of impacts in the set, and/or their degree of interaction, is varied. It is argued that this can be achieved through identification of “meta” or “emergent” properties of the set itself, without reference to the specific causal chains determining behavior in specific instances. While such properties are very general, they may at least allow for the parameterization of the effects of sets of impacts where interactions are highly uncertain and empirical data severely limited, i.e., situations that would typically invoke the Precautionary Principle.     

The Moral Foundation of the Precautionary Principle

The Commission's recentinterpretation of the Precautionary Principleis used as starting point for an analysis ofthe moral foundation of this principle. ThePrecautionary Principle is shown to have theethical status of an amendment to a liberalprinciple to the effect that a state only mayrestrict a person's actions in order to preventunacceptable harm to others. The amendmentallows for restrictions being justified even incases where there is no conclusive scientificevidence for the risk of harmful effects.However, the liberal tradition has seriousproblems in determining when a risk of harm isunacceptable. Nevertheless, reasonable liberalarguments in favor of precaution can be basedon considerations of irreversible harm andgeneral fear of harm. But it is unclear whenthere considerations can be overridden.Within the liberal framework, the Commissionadvocates a so-called proportional version ofthe Precautionary Principle. This should beclearly distinguished from a welfare-basedapproach to precaution based on risk-aversiveweighing up of expected costs and benefits.However, in the last resort, the Commissiondoes seem to make a covert appeal to suchconsiderations.     

石油勘探环境风险评价

通过对石油勘探开发过程中可能发生的环境风险进行识别和分析,提出了预防环境风险的方法和对策。为最大限度地降低风险,防止企业人员伤害、财产损失及环境破坏确定了管理目标,是石油企业实施HSE管理的一项重要内容。     

我国环境事件生发机理的Logistics回归分析

以近年来我国发生的有影响力的100个环境事件为研究对象,通过多元Logistics回归方法。利用环境污染生境、污染主体特征、污染物特征、对象敏感性、社会敏感性、治理难度和治理效果7类变量23类观测指标解析了影响环境事件发生的显著因素。以此为基础,分别给出了控制和预防大概率小损失、大概率大损失、小概率小损失和小概率大损失环境事件发生的政策建议。     

生态环境损害赔偿诉讼：定义与定位矫正

面对生态环境损害赔偿诉讼这一新型诉讼形式,准确把握其定义和定位至关重要。现有生态环境损害赔偿诉讼按国家自然资源所有权私权化路径进行制度构建,其现行定义为特殊私益诉讼,现行定位为环境行政替代工具。这种定义与定位导致其与环境公益诉讼割裂,运行序位上优先于环境民事公益诉讼,引起国家机关角色错位。生态环境损害赔偿诉讼与环境民事公益诉讼的诉讼标的相同,救济和保护的利益均为环境公益,其定义应回归公益诉讼本位;政府在环境公益保护上有着广泛的职权和手段,是环境公共治理的优先主体,仅在少数行政不能的情形下才有借助司法的必要性和合理性,其在定位上应作为环境行政执法的补充机制在有限范围内发挥作用。据此,生态环境损害赔偿诉讼在制度体系上应与既有环境民事公益诉讼置于同一诉讼系属统筹立法,在诉讼序位上应让位于社会组织提起的环境民事公益诉讼。     

城市海岸带环境管理模式优化研究——以青岛市胶州湾为例

我国的海洋污染日益严重,政府加大海洋环境保护力度势在必行。科学、有效的海洋环境管理对保护环境、提高资源利用效率起着非常重要的作用。但海洋环境并不是一维线性的系统,涉及系统的多维耦合,而海岸带又是与人类活动息息相关的重要部分。本文尝试以青岛市胶州湾海岸带环境管理模式为例,构建包含有"经济-人口-资源-环境-安全-行政(EPRESA)"六个子系统的多维耦合系统模型,并绘制出总流图,然后以此为管理模式的优化提供前提性分析,提出海岸带综合管理模式优化的对策建议。本研究认为,要改善现有的海岸带环境管理体系,应该制定综合性管理政策,建立可持续的融资机制,推进海岸带灾害与风险管理以及引导利益相关者参与管理。     

基于环境恢复的环境污染损害责任与建立

环境本身损害的责任缺失是我国环境污染管理中亟待解决的突出问题。文章从社会经济系统与其支撑环境间作用关系过程链的三个响应环节出发,分析了建立环境本身损害责任机制的作用、意义及环境本身损害赔偿的内涵与构成。提出了围绕突发性污染排放问题,以恢复环境为目标,衔接我国环境应急管理系统实施环境本身损害责任的构架。结合突发性污染排放建立环境损害的恢复责任,对推进环境污染损害管理和深化污染事故应急处置具有重要支持作用。     

陆海统筹视域下海洋与陆地环境民事公益诉讼协同研究

海洋环境民事公益诉讼与环境民事公益诉讼系特殊与一般的关系,海洋环境问题较强的涉外属性决定了海洋环境民事公益诉讼在适格主体、管辖法院等方面存在特殊的规定,此种特殊规定不宜废除。但海洋环境民事公益诉讼与环境民事公益诉讼双轨并行的关系造成了海陆交叉污染案件存在适格主体、管辖等争议,且存在两诉协同上的挑战。导致这一问题的根本原因在于,海洋环境民事公益诉讼的受案范围限制在地理概念上的海域,这割裂了同一污染行为下陆地与海洋的联系。陆海统筹理念要求打通陆地与海洋之间的联系,以陆海一体化保护海洋生态环境。在这一理念的指导下,可对海洋环境民事公益诉讼受案范围进行陆海一体化调整,以克服陆地与海洋环境民事公益诉讼双轨并行造成的协同问题。具体而言,在海陆交叉污染案件中可以损害发生地为判断标准,当损害发生地在海洋时,则以海统陆,属海洋环境民事公益诉讼受案范围;当损害发生地在陆地时,则以陆统海,属环境民事公益诉讼受案范围。     

Uncertainty in exhaustible natural resource economics: The irreversible sunk costs of Hotelling

According to Pindyck (2007) there are three important aspects of uncertainly in environmental economics: (1) the benefits and costs of environmental policy tend to be highly non-linear, (2) environmental policy tends to involve important irreversibilities, where investment in pollution abatement can impose an irreversible, sunk cost on society, and where certain pollutants can stay in the environment forever and build up to cause even more future harm in which case investment in abatement can cause an irreversible, sunk benefit to society, and (3) environmental policy involves long time horizons and yet the discount rate society should use is uncertain for determining the net present value of costs and benefits of pollution abatement. These same uncertainties also affect non-renewable, exhaustible, natural resource economics and in particular the use of the Hotelling rule: (1) the costs, benefits and transversality conditions of using the Hotelling rule can be highly non-linear, (2) the Hotelling rule involves important sunk cost irreversibilities, which will be explained here, and (3) the Hotelling rule can involve long time horizons with uncertain discount rates. All three of these problem make it extremely difficult for a market to use in any way the Hotelling rule, yet by the sheer number of articles in non-renewable natural resource economics, one would believe that it is the basis of all resource markets. In this article, we concentrate on the sunk cost irreversibilities of using the Hotelling rule. The idea of the Hotelling rule is to optimally store a non-renewable resource, but the optimization is highly dependent on the actual reserves that are available to extract. However, reserves of underground exhaustible resources are often unobservable at the beginning stages of extraction which makes using the Hotelling Rule difficult.     

Open waste burning in Cameroonian cities: an environmental impact analysis

Lack of technology and efficient management of solid waste coupled with poverty have motivated most developing countries to sort for cheap waste disposal methods with negative consequences on the environment. Open burning at waste dumps causes serious toxicological impacts. Most organic solid waste excluding plastics when burned cause considerably little environmental pollution. However, non-stoichiometric combustion of waste plastics produces significant amounts of various aliphatic and aromatic compounds, acidic gases, dust and smoke. These products pollute the air, water and soil generating significant health problems with related socioeconomic impacts on human, animals and plants. Some of these pollutants are toxic and/or carcinogenic, form acid-rain and influence climate change. Critical discourse and research on environmental toxicology resulting from air pollution with related health risk and impacts have been catalysed by the enactment of major environmental regulations and increased awareness. The new clean air act amendment of 1990 is estimated to require about $25billion annually for its implementation in the United States, indicating the gravity of the pollution problem. Understanding, controlling and mitigating the impacts of chemical pollution from multiple sources related to open burning of plastics is complex. This paper uses content analysis of relevant literature and field observations to analyse, evaluate and identify characteristic pollutants including their transmission potentials, sources and impacts on human health with the assessment, prevention and management of related risk. An affordable technology-based approach applied within a bottom-up management strategy to prevent and control pollution offers a sustainable solution underpinned by resource and energy recovery from waste.     

The presence of pharmaceuticals in the environment due to human use – present knowledge and future challenges

Intensive research on pharmaceuticals in the environment started about 15 years ago. Since then a vast amount of literature has been published. The input and presence of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and their fate in the environment were and is still of high interest. As it has been extensively demonstrated that the active compounds are present in the environment some of the research interest has moved from analysis of the compounds, which is still undertaken, to effect studies in the lab and in field trials. It has been found that environmental concentrations can cause effects in wildlife if proper tools are applied for effect assessment. The question of mixture toxicity has gained more and more attention. It has been learned that classical tests may underestimate effects and risks. Work has been done in the field of risk assessment and risk management. As for risk management strategies to eliminate pharmaceuticals from wastewater or from the effluent of sewage treatment plants have been proposed and investigated. A tremendous amount of literature can now be found describing technical management measures such as oxidative or photolytic effluent treatment, filtering techniques, and application of charcoal. It has been learned however, that each of these approaches has its specific shortcomings. Therefore, additional approaches such as including people handling and using the compounds, and focusing on the properties of the compounds (“green pharmacy”) came into focus. Accordingly, this review gives an overview of the present state of knowledge presenting typical results and lines of discussion. This review makes no claim to give a complete overview including the full detailed body of knowledge of pharmaceuticals in the environment. Rather, it addresses important and typical topics to stimulate discussion.     

A life cycle based multi-objective optimization model for the management of computer waste

The accelerating pace of waste generation from used electrical and electronic equipment is of growing global concern. Within this waste stream, computer hardware is quite significant in terms of both volume and risk to the environment because of the hazardous materials within it. The waste management hierarchy of prevention, reuse, recycle, treatment and disposal in landfill is accepted as a universal guideline for waste management. The contemporary concept of integrated solid waste management is very complex comprising of not only the environmental aspects or the technical aspects of the waste management hierarchy, but also incorporating economic, institutional, perceived risk and social issues in the context of complete life cycle of waste. Moreover, when to shift from one stage of hierarchy to another, is an involved decision warranting inclusion of several case specific issues. This paper presents a life cycle based multi-objective model that can help decision makers in integrated waste management. The proposed model has been applied to a case study of computer waste scenario in Delhi, India, which apart from having computer waste from its native population receives large quantities of imported second hand computers. The model has been used to evaluate management cost and reuse time span or life cycle of various streams of computer waste for different objectives of economy, perceived risk and environmental impact. The model results for different scenarios of waste generation have been analyzed to understand the tradeoffs between cost, perceived risk and environmental impact. The optimum life cycle of a computer desktop was observed to be shorter by 25% while optimizing cost than while optimizing impact to the environment or risk perceived by public. Proposed integrated approach can be useful for determining the optimum life cycle of computer waste, as well as optimum configuration of waste management facilities, for urban centers where computer waste related issues are of growing concern.     

生态环境风险管理与损害赔偿制度现状与展望

我国目前面临的生态环境风险形势复杂严峻，严密防控生态环境风险已成为“十四五”和中长期生态环境保护、美丽中国建设的重要任务之一。本文探讨了生态环境风险的概念、分类，系统梳理了生态环境风险评估与管理、生态环境损害评估与损害赔偿等领域的国内外管理经验与研究进展。在此基础上，重点剖析了我国生态环境风险管理面临的痛点与难点问题，从树立生态环境风险法治管理理念、构建生态环境风险管理战略布局、建立生态环境风险常态化管控体系、加强生态环境风险防控技术支撑、强化经济和社会治理手段助力风险管控、建设生态环境损害赔偿业务化工作体系等六个方面，系统提出了加强我国生态环境风险管理的对策建议，以期为更有效地防范化解重大生态环境风险提供决策参考。     

A life cycle based multi-objective optimization model for the management of computer waste

The accelerating pace of waste generation from used electrical and electronic equipment is of growing global concern. Within this waste stream, computer hardware is quite significant in terms of both volume and risk to the environment because of the hazardous materials within it. The waste management hierarchy of prevention, reuse, recycle, treatment and disposal in landfill is accepted as a universal guideline for waste management. The contemporary concept of integrated solid waste management is very complex comprising of not only the environmental aspects or the technical aspects of the waste management hierarchy, but also incorporating economic, institutional, perceived risk and social issues in the context of complete life cycle of waste. Moreover, when to shift from one stage of hierarchy to another, is an involved decision warranting inclusion of several case specific issues. This paper presents a life cycle based multi-objective model that can help decision makers in integrated waste management. The proposed model has been applied to a case study of computer waste scenario in Delhi, India, which apart from having computer waste from its native population receives large quantities of imported second hand computers. The model has been used to evaluate management cost and reuse time span or life cycle of various streams of computer waste for different objectives of economy, perceived risk and environmental impact. The model results for different scenarios of waste generation have been analyzed to understand the tradeoffs between cost, perceived risk and environmental impact. The optimum life cycle of a computer desktop was observed to be shorter by 25% while optimizing cost than while optimizing impact to the environment or risk perceived by public. Proposed integrated approach can be useful for determining the optimum life cycle of computer waste, as well as optimum configuration of waste management facilities, for urban centers where computer waste related issues are of growing concern.     

农村生态环境污染治理的法律思考

农村生态环境保护是乡村振兴战略的重要一步,但当前农村生态环境污染现状严重,亟待解决.运用案例分析和文献研究法对农村生产、生活现状进行分析.发现我国农村生态环境法制方面存在基本法律缺乏、执法不规范、农民环保意识淡薄的问题.而完善农村环境保护立法、强化农村环境保护执法、提高农民环境保护意识这三条路径能够有效解决农村环境法制...     

Aquaculture and environmental stewardship: Milford shellfish biology seminar—1991

For the past 11 years the annual Shellfish Biology Seminar at Milford CT has provided a unique forum for aquaculture scientists and industry officials to exchange information about estuaries facing increased pollution problems, especially Long Island Sound and the Great South Bay. Because these two areas are so rich in productivity and diversity, fish and shellfish farmers utilize their waters, shellfish beds, and shore land for hatcheries and grow-out facilities. These individuals seek better management of the coastal estuarine environment and its resources, providing a working example of environmental stewardship. In aquaculture, good science is required to understand the complex variables and interaction of estuarine currents, tides, temperature, and cycles of reproduction. Aquaculturists are beginning to understand the need for specific nutrients and how the wastes of one species can be utilized for enhanced production of another species. Over the years, this meeting has formed an amalgam of both the aquaculture industry and research scientists where both groups foster mutual environmental concern. Science is able to focus on the theoretical aspects of pollutant damage. while the aquaculture industry is able to define the problem and need for assistance to eliminate pollutants from their crops—shellfish and finfish. Overfishing is not an issue at these meetings, as the group accepts the damage already done to wild resources and seeks new technologies to grow food sources under controlled and stable market conditions. Therefore, it could be said that the seminar serves as a meeting ground where the theoretical knowledge of scientific study finds practical application in the industry and is fueled by the needs of that industry. This ideal blend of the two groups produces better management of the resource and a safer environment—the goal of stewardship.     

ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT AND THE CONSERVATION OF AQUATIC BIODWERSITY AND ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY1

ABSTRACT: Ecologically effective ecosystem management will require the development of a robust logic, rationale, and framework for addressing the inherent limitations of scientific understanding. It must incorporate a strategy for avoiding irreversible or large-scale environmental mistakes that arise from social and political forces that tend to promote fragmented, uncritical, short-sighted, inflexible, and overly optimistic assessments of resource status, management capabilities, and the consequences of decisions and policies. Aquatic resources are vulnerable to the effects of human activities catchment-wide, and many of the landscape changes humans routinely induce cause irreversible damage (e.g., some species introductions, extinctions of ecotypes and species) or give rise to cumulative, long-term, large-scale biological and cultural consequences (e.g., accelerated erosion and sedimentation, deforestation, toxic contamination of sediments). In aquatic ecosystems, biotic impoverishment and environmental disruption caused by past management and natural events profoundly constrain the ability of future management to maintain biodiversity and restore historical ecosystem functions and values. To provide for rational, adaptive progress in ecosystem management and to reduce the risk of irreversible and unanticipated consequences, managers and scientists must identify catchments and aquatic networks where ecological integrity has been least damaged by prior management, and jointly develop means to ensure their protection as reservoirs of natural biodiversity, keystones for regional restoration, management models, monitoring benchmarks, and resources for ecological research.     

大数据在环境技术进步中的应用

我国环境污染日益严重,政府加大环境保护力度势在必行,科学、有效的环境管理对保护环境、提高环境质量起着重要的作用。环境技术进步是环境管理有效且持久的驱动力,但是,环境技术进步的测度方法一直未能实现普适性。本文首先综述了技术进步对改善环境质量的重要性,在此基础上,阐述了各学者对技术进步和偏向型技术进步测量方法的探究。然后介绍了大数据在环境管理中的应用,在其应用经验的基础上,将其引入环境技术测度领域。大数据在该领域的应用为环境偏向型技术进步的测度提供了新的契机,同时,大数据的应用也增加了研究的困难性。最后,基于偏向型技术进步之间的矛盾,提出最优环境技术的理念。通过利用大数据,可以合理测度偏向型技术进步,实现生产偏向型技术进步和环境偏向型技术进步的合理配比,找出可以兼顾高产出和低污染物排放量的最优偏向型技术进步模式。并进一步结合各区域的差异性和关联性,能够测算出区域最优偏向型技术进步模式,找到有效的环境管理方式,为环境管理者与政策制定者提供合理参考。     

Application of a value-based equivalency method to assess environmental damage compensation under the European Environmental Liability Directive

The Environmental Liability Directive (ELD) establishes a framework of liability based on the ‘polluter-pays’ principle to prevent and remedy environmental damage. The ELD requires the testing of appropriate equivalency methods to assess the scale of compensatory measures needed to offset damage. The aim of this paper is to contribute to fill the existing knowledge gap on the application of the value equivalency approach for damage compensation in this context. We analyze the toxic spill damaging the Doñana National Park (Spain) in 1998. The welfare losses associated with the resource damage are estimated using non-market valuation and compared to the value of the compensatory measures taken after the accident. Our results show that the in-kind compensation may have been insufficient to offset the welfare losses. We conclude that a more comprehensive knowledge of the human welfare effects caused by environmental damage is of substantial importance to determine compensatory remediation, as insufficient information in this respect can lead to erroneous decisions causing loss to society.     

Analyzing the factors affecting environmental risks of projects using a hybrid approach of DEMATEL‐ANP,artificial neural network: A case study

The increasing growth of the economy in each country necessitates a great amount of investment in infrastructure. The belief that projects involve various uncertainties, such as technical skills, management quality, and the like, indicates that most projects fail to achieve their aims, interests, costs, as well as their timeframes and space requirements. As the environment can pose significant uncertainty to any project, environmental risks should be deeply studied by project management departments. This study intends to analyze as a case the environmental risk management system within a consulting firm. From this analysis, each aspect of a project's environmental risk management is ranked using a fuzzy analytical network process (ANP), a neural network algorithm, and a decision‐making trial and evaluation laboratory (DEMATEL) methodology. From the organizational aspect, budget risk is the most significant. From the technical aspect, the risk of regulations is the most important one. Finally, the risk of project failure from poor communication is another identified main risk in this research. By studying high‐ranking items in this hierarchy, it can be understood that these criteria exist in different aspects; therefore, all aspects of the risk should be taken into account to cover and assess risk. A neural network algorithm for validating and reassessment of ranking is employed. Results of this application showed that, based on Spearman's rank correlation method, two different approaches resulted in similar rankings. Finally, some practical implications for responding to the most highly ranked risks are proposed.