The inherent tensions arising from attempting to carry out strategic environmental assessments on all policies,plans and programmes

This paper evaluates the tensions that result from routinely applying SEA to all policies, plans and programmes within Scotland. The European Union SEA Directive, effective in many EU member states from 2004, introduced a requirement for environmental assessment of certain plans and programmes. Scotland, a devolved nation within the EU member state of the United Kingdom, aimed to be a ‘world leader in SEA’ by legislating for SEA to be undertaken of all public sector plans, programmes and strategies, with the word ‘strategies’ being equated with ‘policies’. This paper presents detailed data regarding Scottish SEA activity between 2004 and 2007, including responses to consultations on SEA reports. This empirical research found that, reflecting a general difficulty in determining where and when SEA should be applied, engagement with the SEA process was not as widespread as intended (including the pre-screening and screening stages). Eight tensions evident from Scotland's application of SEA are identified, and their broader relevance is examined.     

Comparative environmental threat analysis: Three case studies

In comparative threat analysis, threats imposed by different environmental problems are measured and compared. This type of analysis can be used to assess the overall threat to the environment, and to identify the most serious threat (key problem) and areas which are particularly threatened (problem areas). Fundamental to comparative threat analysis is a common yardstick by which stresses imposed by different environmental problems can be compared. Such a yardstick may be the carrying capacity of the environment for environmental loads.In this paper we review how carrying capacity for different environmental problems is operationalized. Next, we discuss whether it is possible to compare threats, using the exceeding of carrying capacity as a yardstick. We point out problems and uncertainties in such a comparative threat analysis using three case studies: threats to European groundwater resources; threats to ecosystems in Europe; and threats to ecosystems, human health and groundwater resources in the Netherlands. On the basis of the results we advocate the application of risk assessment to enhance methodological uniformity in assessing protection levels for different environmental problems.     

Microscopic and chemical studies of metal particulates in tree bark and attic dust: evidence for historical atmospheric smelter emissions, Humberside, UK

Tree barks and attic dusts were examined as historical archives of smelter emissions, with the aim of elucidating the pathways of pollution associated with a plume of Sn and Pb contamination in top soils, found close to the former Capper Pass smelter, Humberside, UK. Samples were collected from three villages within the area of the contamination plume. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and bulk chemical analyses were used to assess particle type, number and deposition patterns. SEM analysis of dusts and bark revealed that Sn and Pb particles were present in samples from all three villages along with copper, zinc and iron particles. These were almost entirely <10 microm in diameter and occurred mostly as oxides, frequently forming clusters of sub-micron crystals. Samples further from the smelter contained considerably fewer particles. We present images of smelter derived Sn particles. Chemical assays of the barks and attic dusts demonstrated that concentrations of Sn, Pb, Cu, As, Sb and Cd diminished with increasing distance from the source. Strong positive correlations were found between Sn and Pb, As, Sb and Cd in the attic dusts. Enrichment factors (EF) were calculated for these trace elements based on topsoil element concentrations obtained from the soil survey of the study area. Decreases in these trace element concentrations and EF values with distance away from the smelter are consistent with trends found in the soil survey for Sn and Pb and are typical of deposition patterns around smelter stacks. The study demonstrates that tree bark and attic dusts can be effective archives of metal particulates deposited from large static emission sources.     

Network and system diagrams revisited: Satisfying CEA requirements for causality analysis

Published guidelines for Cumulative Effects Assessment (CEA) have called for the identification of cause-and-effect relationships, or causality, challenging researchers to identify methods that can possibly meet CEA's specific requirements. Together with an outline of these requirements from CEA key literature, the various definitions of cumulative effects point to the direction of a method for causality analysis that is visually-oriented and qualitative. This article consequently revisits network and system diagrams, resolves their reported shortcomings, and extends their capabilities with causal loop diagramming methodology. The application of the resulting composite causality analysis method to three Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) case studies appears to satisfy the specific requirements of CEA regarding causality. Three “moments” are envisaged for the use of the proposed method: during the scoping stage, during the assessment process, and during the stakeholder participation process.     

Contaminated drinking water and rural health perspectives in Rajasthan, India: an overview of recent case studies

Access to safe drinking water is an important issue of health and development at national, regional, and local levels. The concept of safe drinking water assumes greater significance in countries like India where the majority of the population lives in villages with bare infrastructures and poor sanitation facilities. This review presents an overview of drinking water quality in rural habitations of northern Rajasthan, India. Although fluoride is an endemic problem to the groundwater of this region, recently, other anthropogenic chemicals has also been reported in the local groundwater. Recent case studies indicate that about 95% of sites of this region contain a higher fluoride level in groundwater than the maximum permissible limit as decided by the Bureau of Indian Standards. Nitrate (as NO $_{3}^{\,\,-})$ contamination has appeared as another anthropogenic threat to some intensively cultivable rural habitations of this region. Biological contamination has appeared as another issue of unsafe drinking water resources in rural areas of the state. Recent studies have claimed a wide variety of pathogenic bacteria including members of the family Enterobacteriaceae in local drinking water resources. Overall, the quality of drinking water in this area is not up to the safe level, and much work is still required to establish a safe drinking water supply program in this area.     

Evaluation of hydrochemical changes due to intensive aquifer exploitation: case studies from Mexico

The impact of intensive aquifer exploitation has been observed in numerous places around the world. Mexico is a representative example of this problem. In 2010, 101 out of the 653 aquifers recognized in the country, showed negative social, economic, and environmental effects related to intensive exploitation. The environmental effects include, among others, groundwater level decline, subsidence, attenuation, and drying up of springs, decreased river flow, and deterioration of water quality. This study aimed at determining the hydrochemical changes produced by intensive aquifer exploitation and highlighting water quality modifications, taking as example the Valle de Toluca, Salamanca, and San Luis Potosi aquifers in Mexico's highlands. There, elements such as fluoride, arsenic, iron, and manganese have been detected, resulting from the introduction of older groundwater with longer residence times and distinctive chemical composition (regional flows). High concentrations of other elements such as chloride, sulfate, nitrate, and vanadium, as well as pathogens, all related to anthropogenic pollution sources (wastewater infiltration, irrigation return flow, and atmospheric pollutants, among others) were also observed. Some of these elements (nitrate, fluoride, arsenic, iron, and manganese) have shown concentrations above Mexican and World Health Organization drinking water standards.     

Landscape indicators for rural development policies. Application of a core set in the case study of Piedmont Region

The rural landscape has long been eroded by urban and infrastructural development that has altered the system of relationships between town and country. These phenomena, including agriculture intensification, have radically changed the rural landscape, especially in terms of land use, visual and ecological diversity and biocultural heterogeneity. However, agriculture is gradually changing, moving from an exclusively productive model (highly specialised) to one more sensitive to landscape issues. In particular, the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has many environmental aims and, theoretically, its financial tools might be used for landscape purposes. However, the CAP does not have a “landscape dimension” and does not include assessment and integration phases with landscape policies. These issues that have arisen not only appear to be influenced by a lack of clarity on the differences between environmental and landscape orientations, but also by a shortage of indicators to identify and assess the landscape dimension in the Common Monitoring and Evaluation Framework. Here, we attempt to show that a “landscaped role” for the CAP is possible, based upon identifying the main dimensions involved, as well as verifying the effects and induced changes of rural policies. In this scenario, this paper highlights the development and testing of landscape key indicators to support the decision-makers of rural policies. The main result, in an Italian pilot case, reveals direct and indirect relations between Rural Development Programmes (RDPs) and landscape, not only in terms of negative effects, but also in relation to the real contribution of CAP towards preserving farmland and enhancing the rural landscape. Finally, these tools may also be useful in different timescales and different situations, including the improvement of current RDP spatial targeting which often seems to be ineffective compared to the requirements of landscape character areas.     

Assessing land take by urban development and its impact on carbon storage: Findings from two case studies in Italy

Land take due to urbanization triggers a series of negative environmental impacts with direct effects on quality of life for people living in cities. Changes in ecosystem services are associated with land take, among which is the immediate C loss due to land use conversion. Land use change monitoring represents the first step in quantifying land take and its drivers and impacts. To this end, we propose an innovative methodology for monitoring land take and its effects on ecosystem services (in particular, C loss) under multi-scale contexts. The devised approach was tested in two areas with similar sizes, but different land take levels during the time-span 1990–2008 in Central Italy (the Province of Rome and the Molise Region). The estimates of total coverage of built up areas were calculated using point sampling. The area of the urban patches including each sampling point classified as built up areas in the year 1990 and/or in the year 2008 is used to estimate total abundance and average area of built up areas. Biophysical and economic values for carbon loss associated with land take were calculated using InVEST.Although land take was 7–8 times higher in the Province of Rome (from 15.1% in 1990 to 20.4% in 2008) than in Molise region, our findings show that its relative impact on C storage is higher in the latter, where the urban growth consistently affects not only croplands but also semi-natural land uses such as grasslands and other wooded lands. The total C loss due to land take has been estimated in 1.6 million Mg C, corresponding to almost 355 million €.Finally, the paper discusses the main characteristics of urban growth and their ecological impact leading to risks and challenges for future urban planning and land use policies.     

The effectiveness of the mitigation hierarchy in environmental impact studies on marine ecosystems: A case study in France

While the development of maritime economic activity is increasingly encouraged, the consideration of its impacts constitutes a real challenge. The limitations of the implementation of the mitigation hierarchy have been widely discussed in scientific literature, yet data on marine biodiversity offset practices remains scarce. In this study, we investigated the use of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) as suitable instruments to achieve the No Net Loss objective. Drawing on a French approach developed for the initial assessment of the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive, we examined the pressures and impacts related to various marine development projects and the effectiveness of the mitigation hierarchy in limiting these. An analysis of 55 recent French environmental impact studies showed that only 7% of the proposed measures had the aim of offsetting predicted degradation of sites of remarkable biodiversity. This can be partly explained by the lack of a clear definition of ‘significant impact’, which varies greatly depending on what is impacted, in turn allowing socio-economic activities to benefit more easily from offset. Furthermore, offsetting does not always constitute the final step of the mitigation hierarchy, highlighting the need to reinforce avoidance and reduction steps. Although we acknowledge the role of EIA in mitigating the negative impacts of development projects, synergies with other European marine environmental policies such as the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) and the Maritime Spatial Planning directive (MSP) should be developed in order to improve current practices.     

Integrating adaptation to climate change in regional plans and programmes: The role of strategic environmental assessment

Climate changes exert negative impacts on the global environments and the human beings. They imply more frequent extreme weather events, which are responsible of sea level rise, coastal erosion, flooding, droughts, and desertification. Mitigation and adaptation represent intertwined strategies for counteracting climate changes. Mitigation is associated to the lessening of the causes of climate changes and includes actions reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Adaptation is a proactive concept addressing how humans can adapt and benefit from climate change. The mainstreaming and integration of adaptation to climate change into routine practice can be favored by Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) of regional policies, plans and programmes. In this study, we aim at scrutinizing a set of SEA reports of regional plans and programmes adopted in Sardinia (Italy), to investigate if -and to what extent- adaptation to climate change has characterized planning and programming tools. Evidence shows that the integration of adaptation-driven issues into regional planning is still in its infancy but presents the signs of promising expansion.     

SPME-based air sampling method for inhalation exposure assessment studies: case study on perchlorethylene exposure in dry cleaning

Exposure to perchlorethylene, especially for dry cleaning workers and for people living near dry cleaning shops, could lead to several diseases and disorders. This study examines the value of solid-phase microextraction (SPME) for sampling perchlorethylene in the atmosphere of dry cleaning shops. Carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane (CAR/PDMS) in 0.5-cm retracted mode was selected. There were no significant differences between sampling rates at different temperatures (range of 20 to 30 °C) and air velocities (2 to 50 cm/s). On the opposite, relative humidity (RH) had a significant effect on sampling rates. Method reproducibility was realized in the laboratory and field conditions and was 6.2 % and 7 to 11 %, respectively. Repeatability was also determined as 8.9 %. Comparison of the results according to the American Industrial Hygiene Association exposure assessment strategy showed the SPME sampler yields more conservative results in comparison with traditional standard method.     

An eco-sustainable green approach for heavy metals management: two case studies of developing industrial region

Multifaceted issues or paradigm of sustainable development should be appropriately addressed in the discipline of environmental management. Pollution of the biosphere with toxic metals has accelerated dramatically since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. In present review, comparative assessment of traditional chemical technologies and phytoremediation has been reviewed particularly in the context of cost-effectiveness. The potential of phytoremediation and green chemicals in heavy metals management has been described critically. Further, the review explores our work on phytoremediation as green technology during the last 6 years and hand in hand addresses the various ecological issues, benefits and constraints pertaining to heavy metal pollution of aquatic ecosystems and its phytoremediation as first case study. Second case study demonstrates the possible health implications associated with use of metal contaminated wastewater for irrigation in peri-urban areas of developing world. Our researches revealed wetland plants/macrophytes as ideal bio-system for heavy metals removal in terms of both ecology and economy, when compared with chemical treatments. However, there are several constraints or limitations in the use of aquatic plants for phytoremediation in microcosm as well as mesocosm conditions. On the basis of our past researches, an eco-sustainable model has been proposed in order to resolve the certain constraints imposed in two case studies. In relation to future prospect, phytoremediation technology for enhanced heavy metal accumulation is still in embryonic stage and needs more attention in gene manipulation area. Moreover, harvesting and recycling tools needs more extensive research. A multidisciplinary research effort that integrates the work of natural sciences, environmental engineers and policy makers is essential for greater success of green technologies as a potent tool of heavy metals management.     

Health impact assessment of Roma housing policies in Central and Eastern Europe: A comparative analysis

Marginalised Roma communities in European countries live in substandard housing conditions the improvement of which has been one of the major issues of the Decade of Roma Inclusion, the ongoing intergovernmental European Roma programme. The paper presents EU-funded health impact assessments of national Roma housing policies and programmes in 3 Central and Eastern European countries in light of the evaluation of a completed local project in a fourth CEE country so as to compare predicted effects to observed ones. Housing was predicted to have beneficial health effects by improving indoor and outdoor conditions, access to services, and socioeconomic conditions. Negative impacts were predicted only in terms of maintenance expenses and housing tenure. However, observed impacts of the completed local project did not fully support predictions especially in terms of social networks, satisfaction with housing and neighbourhood, and inhabitant safety. In order to improve the predictive value of HIA, more evidence should be produced by the careful evaluation of locally implemented housing projects. In addition, current evidence is in favour of planning Roma housing projects at the local rather than at the national level in alignment with the principle of subsidiarity.     

Cadmium concentrations in human kidney in the UK: 1978-1993

Almost 2700 samples of human renal cortex have been collected from throughout the UK over a 16 year period from 1978 to 1993. The mean Cd concentration was 19 micrograms g-1 and the median 16 micrograms g-1. Smokers were, on average, about 5 micrograms g-1 higher than non-smokers. Cd increased from low concentration in the young to a maximum of 23 micrograms g-1 in middle age followed by a decrease in old age. Subjects who had died of renal disease had lower Cd concentrations. Geographical variations in the UK are small and the concentrations appear to be static over the 16 year period. Some 3.9% of the population had Cd concentrations > 50 micrograms g-1, the critical level at which beta 2-microglobulin appears in urine.