沈阳地区霾的环境特征研究

利用沈阳市1961—2009年的气象资料,分析了霾天气出现的年季特征及其天气形势特征。利用边界层气象资料与污染物质量浓度资料对特定的霾过程从边界层到污染物质量浓度条件进行了分析。结果表明：沈阳地区霾的出现呈现逐年上升的趋势,近5 a平均每年为120 d左右,目前霾天数已经占到了全年的30%~40%。冬秋季节出现霾天气较多,秋冬两季霾日数占全年霾日总数的75%。凌晨到上午是霾出现的高发期,02—08时霾出现频率占总霾数的44.5%。霾的出现主要发生在冬秋季节冷空气势力不强,大气扩散能力较弱,边界层出现逆温时刻。接地逆温层厚度常常稳定在200~300 m高度左右,PM10质量浓度与能见度（霾）呈负相关,相关系数-0.402 7。风速与能见度（霾）呈正相关,相关系数为0.886 4。     

成都市空气质量指数与雾霾的关系研究

统计分析成都市空气质量指数(AQI)日数据与6项指标小时浓度数据,结合大气能见度与相对湿度日数据,采用非线性拟合等方法对成都市AQI与雾霾天气的关系进行研究,并分别分析能见度与相对湿度、AQI之间的线性和非线性关系。结果表明,成都市现阶段AQI和颗粒物污染密切相关,2013年和2014年AQI变化趋势大致相同,4—9月份较低,以良和轻度污染为主,秋冬季大气污染是一年中的高峰期;2014年的逐月AQI普遍较2013年低,一定程度上反映了空气质量的改善。2013年和2014年平均大气能见度变化趋势也大致相同,均表现为春夏较好,而秋冬较差,秋冬季是雾霾多发的季节;随着相对湿度的逐渐增加,大气能见度与AQI的非线性相关系数逐渐升高,具有较好的相关性;在不同的空气质量等级下,相对湿度与能见度的非线性相关系数R_N普遍高于线性相关系数R_L。本研究所得出的AQI与雾霾的非线性模型在判别霾日程度上准确度一般,而在判别雾日方面准确度极高,全年平均准确率达到98%以上,尤其在春季表现得更为明显,拟合值和观测结果吻合度达到100%。同时,该模型在判别霾日或非霾日方面较准确,尤其在雾霾多发的秋冬季节,非霾日的准确度最高分别可达89.44%和92.78%,霾日的准确度最高分别可达88.89%和85%。在季节判断上,分季度模型比全年模型更加准确。     

珠三角地区典型浓雾和灰霾天气过程气象条件对比研究

为深入探究雾、霾天气发生发展过程中气象要素特征的差异,提升环境天气预报预警业务水平,选取2017年3月10-12日和2016年3月29日-4月3日分别出现在珠三角地区的典型浓雾、灰霾天气过程,基于国家自动气象站资料、广州番禺大气成分站数据以及NCEP/NCAR再分析数据,通过相关分析和天气学分析,从环流形势、地面气象要素特征和边界层特征等方面对两次过程进行对比研究。结果表明,(1)浓雾、灰霾个例中均具有较为稳定的环流背景场,高层(500hPa)为纬向平直西风环流,地面受均压场控制,等压线稀疏,稳定的高低层环流配置极有利于雾、霾天气过程的出现和维持,伴随环流形势调整,雾、霾消散。(2)雾、霾过程能见度均与相对湿度呈负相关,与风速、气温呈正相关。灰霾过程能见度与各气象要素的相关性整体高于浓雾过程,且灰霾过程中湿度和能见度的相关系数最大,其次是风速和气温;相对湿度和风速大小是影响浓雾天气的重要气象条件,相对湿度的减小是浓雾天气消散的主要原因,风速增大和降水是灰霾天气消散的主要气象条件。(3)边界层特征分析表明,浓雾天气低层有一个较浅薄的小风速层(1 000-950 h Pa),而灰霾天气存在一个深厚的小风层,小风层厚度从近地面上升至850 hPa左右,两次过程在低层均为一致下沉运动。低层风速增大、出现上升气流,是雾、霾天气开始消散的重要信号。从热力条件来看,两次过程均存在逆温层,浓雾过程逆温层出现在50 hPa附近,灰霾过程逆温层出现在近地面附近,浓雾过程对湿度条件的要求较灰霾天气更高。     

北京地区灰霾污染特征

灰霾天气能见度较低,除影响人们日常生产活动和交通运输外,空气中携带的有毒有害细粒子严重危害人们的生命健康。近几年,北京市加大治霾力度,虽取得一定成绩,但灰霾天气仍然频发。为进一步更好地治理北京灰霾,为制定政策提供依据,须了解北京地区灰霾污染特征,因此,对北京市2013年6月到2014年5月的气象观测数据和PM2.5质量浓度进行了统计分析。文章统计了不同强度灰霾的分布,分析了PM2.5质量浓度与能见度的相关关系,在此基础上,研究了PM2.5质量浓度影响能见度变化程度的分界点。研究结果表明:研究期间,北京地区出现灰霾时总计4 572 h,发生频率为56.2%,灰霾日总计233 d,频率为64.4%,呈冬季春季夏季秋季;湿霾最易发生在夏季,干霾最易发生在冬季,分别占当季灰霾时的17.6%和59.0%;全年不同强度霾发生小时数呈现轻微霾重度霾轻度霾中度霾,其中,轻微霾时数1 625 h,重度霾1 163 h,轻度霾1 101 h,中度霾683 h;研究期间PM2.5质量浓度呈夏季低冬季高的显著变化趋势,PM2.5日均质量浓度达一级空气质量标准59 d,达二级标准159 d,达标率分别为17.7%和47.74%;PM2.5小时质量浓度与能见度呈负相关性较高的幂函数关系(置信度取99%,P0.01),无高湿条件影响下,空气中细颗粒物对能见度的影响更为直接;北京地区在改善能见度的过程中,通过降低1μg·m-3的PM2.5,使能见度改善大于或远大于1 km的概率仅为18.9%,而在50.4%的时段内仅能使能见度的改善小于或远小于0.1 km。     

降雨过程后北京城区PM2.5日时空变化研究

随着人类环境意识的增强,人们对城市雾霾天气的忧虑与日俱增,PM2.5的时空变化和对人体健康的影响已成为关注的焦点。以往的研究多集中在不同季节或年际的变化,本文通过统计环保局发布的位于北京城区13个逐时浓度监测点降雨前后PM2.5质量浓度,并在城区布设14个采样点昼夜连续监测一次降雨后72 h内PM2.5质量浓度变化情况,研究北京市城区降雨后PM2.5日变化规律及空间分布特征,由此分析降雨对PM2.5日变化规律的影响。同时对比PM2.5与同步气象数据（温度、相对湿度）和交通数据（车辆量、车速）最值频率分布情况,进而对PM2.5日变化特征进行成因分析。随后利用GIS空间分析方法,分析了PM2.5的日空间分布特征。结果表明,降雨对颗粒物的去除作用明显,一次降雨可使PM2.5质量浓度平均下降56.3%。雨后72 h内PM2.5质量浓度均小于60μg·m-3,降雨后1 h内PM2.5质量浓度处于稳定状态,在随后的12 h内PM2.5浓度值都处于下降状态。降雨过程只降低PM2.5的质量浓度值,并不影响其日变化规律。PM2.5的日变化规律以19时为界,表现出明显的昼夜差异。白天的变化规律呈现凹型,夜间的变化规律呈现拱型。PM2.5质量浓度峰值多出现在23时或0时,谷值多出现在下午15时,该特征受气象因素影响较大,受交通源的影响作用不明显。早高峰期间,PM2.5质量浓度变化主要受交通源的影响;晚高峰期间,交通源和气象因素共同影响PM2.5质量浓度。研究区PM2.5日空间分布特征同样存在明显的昼夜差异。白天PM2.5空间分布特征为南部高北部低;PM2.5在夜间的空间分布特征则多表现为四周高、中心低,三环外围区域多为高值区。     

基于卫星观测的南京臭氧时空分布及变化特征

随着城市化及工业化进程的加快,南京市的臭氧污染问题也愈发突出。利用OMI(ozone monitoring instrument)的卫星观测数据与Ziemke数据集对南京市2008—2017年臭氧时空分布特征进行遥感反演和统计分析,为制定南京臭氧控制策略提供科学依据及参考。结果如下,10年间南京上空臭氧总量总体缓慢上升,最低值出现在2008年(284.46 DU);最高值在2010年(297.27 DU)。春季臭氧总量最高,秋季最低。10年间,冬、春季臭氧总量波动上升,而夏、秋季则相反。臭氧总量的月变化呈周期性分布,4月和10月分别为峰值和谷值。臭氧总量的空间分布呈现明显的北高南低的纬度分布特征。而对流层臭氧柱浓度在2008—2017年波动上升,季节均值最大值出现在夏季(48.8 DU),冬季最小(34.1 DU)。10年间,春季对流层柱臭氧浓度呈下降趋势,其他季节均与之相反。对流层臭氧柱浓度的月变化呈现单峰分布,6月的对流层臭氧柱浓度最高(54.9 DU),最低值出现在1月,较臭氧总量的月变化推迟2—3个月。研究表明,南京上空的臭氧时空变化特征明显,为大气环流、气候变化及人类活动等多方面因素共同影响的结果。     

降雨过程后北京城区PM_(2.5)日时空变化研究

随着人类环境意识的增强,人们对城市雾霾天气的忧虑与日俱增,PM2.5的时空变化和对人体健康的影响已成为关注的焦点。以往的研究多集中在不同季节或年际的变化,本文通过统计环保局发布的位于北京城区13个逐时浓度监测点降雨前后PM2.5质量浓度,并在城区布设14个采样点昼夜连续监测一次降雨后72 h内PM2.5质量浓度变化情况,研究北京市城区降雨后PM2.5日变化规律及空间分布特征,由此分析降雨对PM2.5日变化规律的影响。同时对比PM2.5与同步气象数据(温度、相对湿度)和交通数据(车辆量、车速)最值频率分布情况,进而对PM2.5日变化特征进行成因分析。随后利用GIS空间分析方法,分析了PM2.5的日空间分布特征。结果表明,降雨对颗粒物的去除作用明显,一次降雨可使PM2.5质量浓度平均下降56.3%。雨后72 h内PM2.5质量浓度均小于60μg·m-3,降雨后1 h内PM2.5质量浓度处于稳定状态,在随后的12 h内PM2.5浓度值都处于下降状态。降雨过程只降低PM2.5的质量浓度值,并不影响其日变化规律。PM2.5的日变化规律以19时为界,表现出明显的昼夜差异。白天的变化规律呈现凹型,夜间的变化规律呈现拱型。PM2.5质量浓度峰值多出现在23时或0时,谷值多出现在下午15时,该特征受气象因素影响较大,受交通源的影响作用不明显。早高峰期间,PM2.5质量浓度变化主要受交通源的影响;晚高峰期间,交通源和气象因素共同影响PM2.5质量浓度。研究区PM2.5日空间分布特征同样存在明显的昼夜差异。白天PM2.5空间分布特征为南部高北部低;PM2.5在夜间的空间分布特征则多表现为四周高、中心低,三环外围区域多为高值区。     

北京地区灰霾污染特征

灰霾天气能见度较低,除影响人们日常生产活动和交通运输外,空气中携带的有毒有害细粒子严重危害人们的生命健康。近几年,北京市加大治霾力度,虽取得一定成绩,但灰霾天气仍然频发。为进一步更好地治理北京灰霾,为制定政策提供依据,须了解北京地区灰霾污染特征,因此,对北京市2013年6月到2014年5月的气象观测数据和PM2.5质量浓度进行了统计分析。文章统计了不同强度灰霾的分布,分析了PM2.5质量浓度与能见度的相关关系,在此基础上,研究了PM2.5质量浓度影响能见度变化程度的分界点。研究结果表明：研究期间,北京地区出现灰霾时总计4572 h,发生频率为56.2%,灰霾日总计233 d,频率为64.4%,呈冬季〉春季〉夏季〉秋季;湿霾最易发生在夏季,干霾最易发生在冬季,分别占当季灰霾时的17.6%和59.0%;全年不同强度霾发生小时数呈现轻微霾〉重度霾〉轻度霾〉中度霾,其中,轻微霾时数1625 h,重度霾1163 h,轻度霾1101 h,中度霾683 h;研究期间PM2.5质量浓度呈夏季低冬季高的显著变化趋势,PM2.5日均质量浓度达一级空气质量标准59 d,达二级标准159 d,达标率分别为17.7%和47.74%;PM2.5小时质量浓度与能见度呈负相关性较高的幂函数关系（置信度取99%,P〈0.01）,无高湿条件影响下,空气中细颗粒物对能见度的影响更为直接;北京地区在改善能见度的过程中,通过降低1μg·m-3的PM2.5,使能见度改善大于或远大于1 km的概率仅为18.9%,而在50.4%的时段内仅能使能见度的改善小于或远小于0.1 km。     

冬季广州大气能见度影响因子分析

于2005年12月至2006年2月收集了华南所大气观测站大气能见度等7个气象因子及PM2.5浓度观测数据,分析了冬季广州大气能见度变化趋势及灰霾天气主要影响因子,并对能见度与主要影响因子进行相关性分析。结果发现:人为因素和气象条件对大气能见度的影响比较明显,当大气层结受到北方冷空气扰动后,能见度得到明显改善;1月份灰霾天气出现频率高达60.9%,灰霾天气下大气能见度与PM2.5浓度密切相关;大气能见度与PM2.5浓度、温度、相对湿度呈负相关性,与大气压呈正相关性;灰霾天气下大气能见度还与细颗粒物的粒径分布密切相关。     

2001—2012年哈尔滨市空气质量长期变化特征

根据2001—2012年环保部发布的哈尔滨市城市空气质量日报数据及同期气象资料分析了哈尔滨市空气污染指数(API)的变化特征.结果表明,哈尔滨市空气污染呈现明显的北方季节变化特征,API冬、春季高,夏、秋季低,供暖期高于非供暖期.哈尔滨市空气污染以可吸入颗粒物为首要污染物,空气质量状况以良居多,占总样本数的75.4%.从年际变化来看,空气质量有了一定的改善,12年间空气污染指数呈显著下降的趋势.哈尔滨市空气污染指数与风速呈显著正相关,与降水量、气温、能见度呈显著负相关.后向轨迹分析结果表明,哈尔滨市出现中度以上污染时,其气团来源体现了3种不同的特征.     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

Cost‐effective conservation of an endangered frog under uncertainty

How should managers choose among conservation options when resources are scarce and there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of actions? Well‐developed tools exist for prioritizing areas for one‐time and binary actions (e.g., protect vs. not protect), but methods for prioritizing incremental or ongoing actions (such as habitat creation and maintenance) remain uncommon. We devised an approach that combines metapopulation viability and cost‐effectiveness analyses to select among alternative conservation actions while accounting for uncertainty. In our study, cost‐effectiveness is the ratio between the benefit of an action and its economic cost, where benefit is the change in metapopulation viability. We applied the approach to the case of the endangered growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis), which is threatened by urban development. We extended a Bayesian model to predict metapopulation viability under 9 urbanization and management scenarios and incorporated the full probability distribution of possible outcomes for each scenario into the cost‐effectiveness analysis. This allowed us to discern between cost‐effective alternatives that were robust to uncertainty and those with a relatively high risk of failure. We found a relatively high risk of extinction following urbanization if the only action was reservation of core habitat; habitat creation actions performed better than enhancement actions; and cost‐effectiveness ranking changed depending on the consideration of uncertainty. Our results suggest that creation and maintenance of wetlands dedicated to L. raniformis is the only cost‐effective action likely to result in a sufficiently low risk of extinction. To our knowledge we are the first study to use Bayesian metapopulation viability analysis to explicitly incorporate parametric and demographic uncertainty into a cost‐effective evaluation of conservation actions. The approach offers guidance to decision makers aiming to achieve cost‐effective conservation under uncertainty.     

Parasitic wasps orient to green leaf volatiles

Summary Undamaged plants emit low levels of green leaf volatiles (GLVs), while caterpillar-damaged and artificially damaged plants emit relatively higher levels of certain GLVs. Female braconid parasitoids,Microplitis croceipes, oriented to both damaged plants and to individual GLVs in no-choice tests in a wind tunnel, but seldom oriented to undamaged plants. Female ichneumonid parasitoids,Netelia heroica, also oriented to individual GLVs in a wind tunnel. Males of both wasp species failed to orient to the GLVs. These data show that leaf-feeding caterpillars can cause the release of GLVs, and that parasitic wasps can respond to these odors by flying upwind (chemoanemotactic response), which brings the wasps to their caterpillar hosts. This supports the hypothesis that plants communicate with members of the third trophic level,i.e., plants under herbivore attack emit chemical signals that guide natural enemies of herbivores to sites of plant damage. In this interaction, the GLVs serve as tritrophic plant-to-parasitoid synomones. That parasitoids from two different wasp families oriented to GLVs suggests that the response may be widespread among the Hymenoptera.Mention of a commercial or proprietary product does not constitute an endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture     

Potential for Electropositive Metal to Reduce the Interactions of Atlantic Sturgeon with Fishing Gear

Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrhynchus) populations have been declared either endangered or threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Effective measures to repel sturgeon from fishing gear would be beneficial to both fish and fishers because they could reduce both fishery‐associated mortality and the need for seasonal and area closures of specific fisheries. Some chondrostean fishes (e.g., sturgeons and paddlefishes) can detect weak electric field gradients (possibly as low as 5 Μv/cm) due to arrays of electroreceptors (ampullae of Lorenzini) on their snout and gill covers. Weak electric fields, such as those produced by electropositive metals (typically mixtures of the lanthanide elements), could therefore potentially be used as a deterrent. To test this idea, we recorded the behavioral responses of juvenile Atlantic sturgeon (31–43 cm fork length) to electropositive metal (primarily a mixture of the lanthanide elements neodymium and praseodymium) both in the presence and absence of food stimuli. Trials were conducted in an approximately 2.5 m diameter × 0.3 m deep tank, and fish behaviors were recorded with an overhead digital video camera. Video records were subsequently digitized (x, y coordinate system), the distance between the fish and the electropositive metal calculated, and data summarized by compiling frequency distributions with 5‐cm bins. Juvenile sturgeon showed clear avoidance of electropositive metal but only when food was present. On the basis of our results, we conclude that the electropositive metals, or other sources of weak electric fields, may eventually be used to reduce the interactions of Atlantic sturgeon with fishing gear, but further investigation is needed. El Potencial del Metal Electropositivo para Reducir las Interacciones del Esturión Atlántico con Instrumentos de Pesca Bouyoucos, Bushnell & Brill 13–003     

The role of time and species identities in spatial patterns of species richness and conservation

Many conservation actions are justified on the basis of managing biodiversity. Biodiversity, in terms of species richness, is largely the product of rare species. This is problematic because the intensity of sampling needed to characterize communities and patterns of rarity or to justify the use of surrogates has biased sampling in favor of space over time. However, environmental fluctuations interacting with community dynamics lead to temporal variations in where and when species occur, potentially affecting conservation planning by generating uncertainty about results of species distribution modeling (including range determinations), selection of surrogates for biodiversity, and the proportion of biodiversity composed of rare species. To have confidence in the evidence base for conservation actions, one must consider whether temporal replication is necessary to produce broad inferences. Using approximately 20 years of macrofaunal data from tidal flats in 2 harbors, we explored variation in the identity of rare, common, restricted range, and widespread species over time and space. Over time, rare taxa were more likely to increase in abundance or occurrence than to remain rare or disappear and to exhibit temporal patterns in their occurrence. Space–time congruency in ranges (i.e., spatially widespread taxa were also temporally widespread) was observed only where samples were collected across an environmental gradient. Fifteen percent of the taxa in both harbors changed over time from having spatially restricted ranges to having widespread ranges. Our findings suggest that rare species can provide stability against environmental change, because the majority of species were not random transients, but that selection of biodiversity surrogates requires temporal validation. Rarity needs to be considered both spatially and temporally, as species that occur randomly over time are likely to play a different role in ecosystem functioning than those exhibiting temporal structure (e.g., seasonality). Moreover, temporal structure offers the opportunity to place management and conservation activities within windows of maximum opportunity.     

Main nutrient compounds in food bodies of Mexican <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acacia</Emphasis> ant-plants

Summary. Myrmecophytic plants use obligate ant mutualists as a constitutive indirect defence mechanism. These plants often produce cellular food bodies (FBs) to nourish their resident ants. Lipids, proteins, and even highly specialised compounds such as glycogen have been reported from FBs, but detailed chemical analyses of FB composition have so far been presented only for Southeast Asian Macaranga and Central American Piper myrmecophytes. Here we report the chemical composition of FBs of five myrmecophytic Acacia (Fabaceae) species from Mexico using HPLC (carbohydrates and proteins) and GC-MS (lipids). Feeding experiments revealed no hints on any use of external food sources by the inhabiting Pseudomyrmex ants. These ants obviously rely completely on FBs and extrafloral nectar provided by their hosts. The total content of nutrients in Acacia FBs was 15-25% of FB dry mass, being much lower than in Macaranga or Piper FBs. Proteins were dominating (8-14 % dm) in Acacia FBs and thus were present in higher amounts than in Macaranga FBs, yet in lower amounts than in Piper. Lipids contributed 1-9 % of dry mass, showing a lower proportion than in FBs of Macaranga or Piper. Carbohydrates made up 3-11 % dm, reaching in most Acacia species the same range as observed in Macaranga and in Piper FBs. Water content was 18-24 % of FB fresh mass, and structural tissue obviously made up a much higher proportion in Acacia FBs than in Macaranga or Piper FBs. Both characters might represent an adaptation to producing FBs unprotected at the leaf tips under dry conditions. Acacia FBs contain all amino acids and all fatty acids that are considered essential for insects, and their contents of lipids and proteins are higher than in the leaves from which they are ontogenetically derived. This indicates a putatively adaptive enrichment of nutritionally valuable compounds in structures functioning as ant-food.     

Examining the uncertain origin and management role of martens on Prince of Wales Island,Alaska

Conservation biologists are generally united in efforts to curtail the spread of non‐native species globally. However, the colonization history of a species is not always certain, and whether a species is considered non‐native or native depends on the conservation benchmark. Such ambiguities have led to inconsistent management. Within the Tongass National Forest of Alaska, the status of American marten (Martes americana) on the largest, most biologically diverse and deforested island, Prince of Wales (POW), is unclear. Ten martens were released to POW in the early 1930s, and it was generally believed to be the founding event, although this has been questioned. The uncertainty surrounding when and how martens colonized POW complicates management, especially because martens were selected as a design species for the Tongass. To explore the history of martens of POW we reviewed other plausible routes of colonization; genetically and isotopically analyzed putative marten fossils deposited in the late Pleistocene and early Holocene to verify marten occupancy of POW; and used contemporary genetic data from martens on POW and the mainland in coalescent simulations to identify the probable source of the present‐day marten population on POW. We found evidence for multiple routes of colonization by forest‐associated mammals beginning in the Holocene, which were likely used by American martens to naturally colonize POW. Although we cannot rule out human‐assisted movement of martens by Alaskan Natives or fur trappers, we suggest that martens be managed for persistence on POW. More generally, our findings illustrate the difficulty of labeling species as non‐native or native, even when genetic and paleo‐ecological data are available, and support the notion that community resilience or species invasiveness should be prioritized when making management decisions rather than more subjective and less certain conservation benchmarks.