Self-appraisal and perceptions of the appraisal discussion: A field experiment

Performance evaluation based on self-appraisal has been widely advocated because of its potential for increasing the effectiveness of the performance appraisal discussion. A field experiment was conducted to assess the effects of a formal ’both-rate‘ self appraisal (where both manager and subordinate independently complete appraisals before the discussion) on perceptions of ratee and rater behaviors and outcomes. One hundred fifty-one ratees and 81 raters randomly assigned to self-appraisal and control groups participated in the study. Results indicated that the self-appraisal treatment had no main effects on ratee perceptions of their contributions to the discussion or satisfaction with the appraisal. Self-appraising ratees perceived less influence over the appraisal discussion, and less agreement with their manager's rating than did non-self appraisers. However, informal self-appraisal behavior was significantly and positively correlated with most dependent variables. Results suggest major differences between formal and informal self-appraisal which warrant future research.     

Why did I say sorry? Apology motives and transgressor perceptions of reconciliation

Despite the importance of apology in reconciling interpersonal transgressions, little research has focused on the people engaging in the behavior. Why do transgressors apologize in the workplace, and do apology motives shape transgressor perceptions of reconciliation? We conducted three field studies using qualitative and quantitative methodologies to examine these questions. In Studies 1 and 2 (total N = 781), we identified four distinct apology motives—self‐blame, relational value, personal expedience, and fear of sanctions—and developed self‐report scales to measure the motives. In Study 3 (N = 420), we examined relations between apology motives and transgressor perceptions of victim forgiveness and relationship reconciliation through the lens of motivated cognition. We found that apologizing due to self‐blame, relational value, and personal expedience increases perceptions of victim forgiveness, whereas apologizing due to fear of sanctions decreases perceived forgiveness. Moreover, mediation analyses revealed that motives indirectly influence transgressor perceptions of relationship reconciliation through perceived forgiveness. Taken together, our research presents a novel multidimensional perspective on apology‐giving in the workplace, suggesting that why transgressors apologize can affect their perceptions of reconciliation. Overall, our research highlights the need to incorporate transgressor cognitive and motivational processes into reconciliation research.     

Making sense of organizational change: Is hindsight really 20/20?

This qualitative study explores the conceptual links between 2 different approaches to managerial cognition, sensemaking and cognitive bias, in the context of organizational change. A longitudinal case study utilizing both real‐time assessments and retrospective sensemaking data from interviews with 26 hospital employees at 3 points in time was undertaken. Patterns related to individuals' retrospective accounts and real‐time assessments were identified and used to construct 4 prototypical narratives. Data analysis revealed that organizational change was not a markedly negative experience for most informants, which is contrary to the prevailing theme in the literature. This and other findings are discussed in terms of sensemaking and cognitive bias. This study makes 2 contributions to our understanding of how individual's experience and make sense of organizational change over time as (a) little is known about how the process of change unfolds over time at the individual level and (b) extant research has not investigated the extent to which individuals' retrospective sensemaking about organizational change reflects or diverges from their real‐time assessments over the course of the change. More broadly, the study provides insights and focused advice for management researchers regarding the use of retrospective data to understand individuals' perceptions of situations that have already occurred.     

The cross‐level effects of culture and climate in human service teams

This two‐level study of child welfare and juvenile justice case management teams addresses construct, measurement, and composition issues that plague multilevel research on organizational culture and climate. Very few empirical studies have examined both culture and climate simultaneously, and none have provided evidence that culture and climate are distinct or similar constructs. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), within‐group consistency analysis (r_wg), between‐group differences (ICC and eta‐squared), and hierarchical linear models (HLM) analysis provide evidence that climate and culture are separate constructs that vary by organizational unit, and are related to work attitudes, perceptions, and behavior. Findings link team‐level culture and climate to individual‐level job satisfaction and commitment, perceptions of service quality, and turnover. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Diagnosis of safety culture in safety management audits

Based on the sociotechnical systems approach, an understanding of safety culture as deeply rooted assumptions about the interplay of people, technology, and organization in their relation to safety is presented. As a complement to audit methods aimed at assessing formal safety management, a questionnaire was developed which allows some indications of these assumptions to be captured by providing data on perceptions regarding operational safety, safety and design strategies, and personal job needs. Analyzing response patterns of different occupational, hierarchical, and organizational groups within a company in combination with formal audit results and the communicative validation of both in a feedback meeting can help the auditors as well as the members of the company to gain a deeper understanding of safety management and safety culture in that company. Results from seven audits in petrochemical plants are presented and discussed with respect to the validity and practicability of the chosen approach.     

The role of perceived system knowledge in predicting appraisal reactions,job satisfaction,and organizational commitment

There is a very large research base in Applied Psychology on the importance of affective reactions on organizational functioning. Likewise, performance appraisal has been a heavily researched area within the field. The present field studies attempt to bridge our understanding of these two areas by studying the relationship between performance appraisal process variables and employee affective reactions. In particular, the current studies examine the effects of a relatively new performance appraisal variable, Perceived System Knowledge (Williams and Levy, 1992), on appraisal reactions and job attitudes. In both studies, there was a strong relationship between employees' levels of perceived system knowledge and their appraisal reactions and job attitudes. In Study 1, when controlling for performance rating, PSK was positively related to appraisal reactions, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. The findings from Study 1 were replicated in the second study which employed a longitudinal design. In addition, Study 2 found a relationship between PSK and fairness perceptions. Implications for these results and suggestions for approaching performance appraisal from an organizational perspective are proposed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Measuring maintenance culture and maintenance core task with CULTURE-questionnaire––a case study in the power industry

Organisational culture has become a focus of much attention in industry in general and the nuclear industry in particular. In maintenance work, the research has addressed mainly human error issues or strategic decision making and optimisation. The present study utilises the CULTURE-questionnaire that is designed to measure the different cultural aspects of complex organisations. Functioning of the questionnaire and the results obtained in a case study at a maintenance organisation of a nuclear power plant are reported in this paper. The questionnaire consisted of four instruments: measures of values, psychological job characteristics, individual perceptions and organisational core task. Three of the instruments were factor analysed and 13 summated scales were formed. The core task instrument was used in a cluster analysis to separate the respondents into groups on the basis of their orientation towards the maintenance work. Differences between the work tasks, section, age and length of service were studied. Hierarchical position in the company influenced perceptions of values. Core task orientation influenced the perception and subjective feelings towards one's organisation. Several partially overlapping subcultures were thus identified. The implications of the different work orientations for effective maintenance are discussed.     

Relationships between psychological climate perceptions and work outcomes: a meta‐analytic review

In this study, meta‐analytic procedures were used to examine the relationships between individual‐level (psychological) climate perceptions and work outcomes such as employee attitudes, psychological well‐being, motivation, and performance. Our review of the literature generated 121 independent samples in which climate perceptions were measured and analyzed at the individual level. These studies document considerable confusion regarding the constructs of psychological climate, organizational climate, and organizational culture and reveal a need for researchers to use terminology that is consistent with their level of measurement, theory, and analysis. Our meta‐analytic findings indicate that psychological climate, operationalized as individuals' perceptions of their work environment, does have significant relationships with individuals' work attitudes, motivation, and performance. Structural equation modeling analyses of the meta‐analytic correlation matrix indicated that the relationships of psychological climate with employee motivation and performance are fully mediated by employees' work attitudes. We also found that the James and James ( 1989 ) PC_g model could be extended to predict the impact of work environment perceptions on employee attitudes, motivation, and performance. Despite the number of published individual‐level climate studies that we found, there is a need for more research using standardized measures so as to enable analyses of the organizational and contextual factors that might moderate the effects of psychological climate perceptions. Finally, we argue for a molar theory of psychological climate that is rooted in the psychological processes by which individuals make meaning or their work experiences. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The impact of multiple source feedback on management development: findings from a longitudinal study

Despite the rapid uptake of multi‐source multi‐rater (MSMR) feedback systems by UK organizations, comparatively little research exists describing the actual impact on participant managers, in terms of changes in management competence. Ratings of 104 target managers (by self assessments, bosses‐, first‐ and second‐level subordinates) were investigated within the context of a developmental feedback programme in operation within an organization. The study compared ratings over two administrations (with two years between administrations) to determine: (1) changes in co‐workers' perceptions of their target manager's competence, (2) changes in target managers' development needs over time, (3) factors influencing a target manager's revised self‐assessment and co‐workers ratings, (4) changes in congruence between self and co‐workers ratings and (5) the relationship of feedback to the organization's formal performance appraisal process. Significant increases in managers' competence were perceived by the managers' themselves and by their subordinates, development needs were seen to reduce and self and co‐workers ratings were largely seen to become more congruent. However, polynomial regression analyses revealed co‐workers feedback at Time One was not predictive of targets' self‐assessments at Time Two. The implications of these findings with regard to the utility of MSMR feedback as a tool for management development are discussed. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Balancing cognition and emotion: Innovation implementation as a function of cognitive appraisal and emotional reactions toward innovation

Focusing on the role of emotions in understanding employee behavior, the present study identifies employees' emotional reactions toward innovation as a mediating process that explains the effects of institutional environment on collective innovation use in work units. We further employed the appraisal theory of emotion and affective events theory (AET) to conceptualize the relationships between cognitions and emotions involving innovation. This expanded conceptual model was tested using multi‐source data from 1150 employees and managers of 81 branches of a Korean insurance company that were implementing a new practice called Life‐Long Learning. Two contextual factors (management involvement and training for innovation) significantly predicted employees' collective cognitive appraisal of the innovation (perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use). Collective cognitive appraisal in turn predicted employees' positive and negative emotions toward the innovation, which completely mediated the effects of contextual factors and cognitive appraisal on implementation effectiveness (consistent and committed use of the innovation in the branch). This study highlights the critical role of emotions in the context of innovation implementation, and shows the need for greater attention to emotional processes in examining organizational innovations. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Identifying the antecedents of coping with an organizational acquisition: a structural assessment

This study used Lazarus and Folkman's ( 1984 ) cognitive–phenomenological model of coping and Lazarus's ( 1991 ) theory of emotions to develop and test a model of how individuals cope with an organizational acquisition. The model identifies the origins and process used to select both problem‐focused and emotion‐focused coping strategies. Covariance structure analysis of data from 172 individuals indicated that problem‐focused coping was directly influenced by primary appraisal and negative emotion, while only certain types of emotion‐focused coping were directly related to negative emotion. All coping strategies were impacted by social support. Furthermore, negative emotion was predicted by primary appraisal, which in turn was related to perceived control, coping efficacy, and environmental conditions. Recommendations for future research and applications are discussed. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

General and specific measures in organizational behavior research: Considerations,examples, and recommendations for researchers

Deliberation over and relative preference for general or specific (broad or narrow) constructs has long been an important issue in organizational behavior research. In this article, we provide a review of this general issue and some specific recommendations for researchers. We begin by discussing whether the general versus specific issue is an important debate and by discussing other underlying issues (the role of researcher preferences, distinction between reflective and formative indicators, and distinction between constructs and measures of constructs). Building on Chen's (this issue) analysis of core self‐evaluations, we first discuss how the general–specific debate has progressed in core self‐evaluations research. We then discuss three other important areas in which this debate has played out: intelligence, five‐factor model of personality, and job attitudes. Finally, we offer a framework to help guide decisions about whether to utilize general measures, specific measures, or both and conclude by providing recommendations for the use of general and specific measures in organizational behavior research. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Perceptions of industrial risk and emergency management procedures in Hazmat Logistics: A qualitative mental model approach

In the industrial risk field, Hazmat Logistics research is growing as a sector of special relevance. The road transport of these substances is an activity with an elevated risk, involving drivers, logistics systems, industries, infrastructures, urban areas, etc.In the study of risk and safety of the logistics of hazardous materials there is a special relevance for new and complex elements, as human factors and mental models involved in managing critical incidents ‘‘on the road”. Moreover, the ‘‘emergency management training” of human resources in this field is often limited, and this represents another factor of vulnerability.In collaboration with SBG (one of the leading European Hazmat Logistics corporations), we developed a quali-quantitative study on cognitive representations and semantic perceptions of risk and emergency management procedures in tanker drivers. The main innovation of the study, with the direct involvement of the stakeholder and 47 drivers, is represented by the construction and use of ‘‘ad hoc” psychometrical and knowledge-elicitation, allowing a deeper analysis of workers’ mental models.The application of PCP tools of adapted RepGrid and Landfield Laddering Procedures allows to analyze some of the main qualitative structures of mental models held by drivers about Hazmat Logistics. Through the analysis of these mental models, it could become possible to set up efficient preventive actions for this type of industrial risk. We are going to discuss the consequences of these findings and methodological approaches for the industrial risk-and-safety field.     

An examination of attributions and emotions in the transactional approach to the organizational stress process

Although the transactional model of the stress process (Lazarus, 1966, 1993; Lazarus and Folkman, 1984, 1987) continues to be utilized in a significant amount of stress research, much of the current literature on job stress focuses on pinpointing objective stressors. This paper examines Lazarus' transactional appraisal approach and includes a specific discussion of the process by which employees' attributions regarding stressors and the resulting emotions significantly influence their choices of coping mechanisms. Given that a single work event can be interpreted in a variety of ways, the role of individuals' cognitive processing is being ignored by much of the current empirical stress research. This paper examines and highlights the importance of the cognitive and emotional components within the organizational stress process. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Generations as social categories: An exploratory cognitive study of generational identity and generational stereotypes in a multigenerational workforce

Even though the academic press recognizes generational diversity and its consequences, the related findings are fractured, and research is incomplete regarding methodology and theoretical background. In adopting a social identity perspective concerning groups and self‐conception, we argue that the social identity perspective is in line with generational identity theory. Employing a cognitive mapping method (repertory grid technique, mixed methods), the present study taps into three generations (Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y) of Belgian managers' minds and demonstrates how they perceive their own and the two other generations. Our research reveals that perceptions of their own and other generations may direct social categorization and generational stereotypes of the in‐group and out‐group(s), that some of these stereotypes can be enacted, and that generational stereotypes do not necessarily coincide with age‐based stereotypes. Several metapatterns in the stereotypes are revealed as well. Hence, we contribute to the emerging field of research that calls for an identity‐based approach rather than a cohort‐based approach to generations and that validates the argument that generations as a workplace phenomenon must be considered a legitimate phenomenon. Insights into generations as social categories give a richer view of the interrelationships between generations in multigenerational situations at work.     

Tired of innovations? Learned helplessness and fatigue in the context of continuous streams of innovation implementation

The business environment faced by contemporary organizations is highly uncertain and constantly changing. Thus, organizations have adopted and implemented a continuous stream of innovations to achieve sustainable growth and survival. Considering the demand for additional resources to implement innovations, the present study explores organizational conditions that may lead to innovation‐targeted burnout and fatigue among employees, which impede their active participation in a subsequent innovation. To this end, we propose a theoretical framework that elucidates the effects of previous innovations on the subsequent implementation behavior of employees. We identify two dimensions of the cognitive appraisal of previous innovations (i.e., intensity and failure) that shape employees' beliefs regarding innovations, such as innovation‐targeted helplessness, which ultimately results in innovation fatigue. Data collected from 84 managers and 397 employees of Chinese and Korean organizations prove the significant role of employee perceptions of previous innovations in shaping the innovation‐targeted helplessness and fatigue of employees, which ultimately affect employee behavior toward a subsequent innovation. The present conceptual and empirical analyses suggest that given continuous streams of innovation implementation, managers should carefully consider employee's perceptions of previous innovations (i.e., intensity and failure) for successful implementation of a subsequent innovation. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Person–organization and person–supervisor fits: Employee commitments in a Chinese context

The present study simultaneously examined people's perceptions of person–organization (PO) and person–supervisor (PS) fit and related these perceptions to employees' commitments. Three‐hundred‐and‐sixty employee–supervisor dyads from Taiwanese organizations reported about their PO fit and PS fit perceptions. In addition, supervisors reported about their perceptions of fit and guanxi with each of their employees. Results indicated that PO and PS fit perceptions both had an independent and additive relationship with organizational commitment. The link between employee PS fit perceptions and organizational commitment was mediated by commitment to the supervisor. Both employee and supervisor fit perceptions contributed to commitment to the supervisor through their influence on the quality of the leader‐member exchange (LMX). Guanxi could not explain additional variance in LMX and supervisor commitment. Implications for theory and practices regarding person–environment fit, commitment, and LMX are discussed. The study findings offered suggestions for a new Theory of Multiple Fits. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Should we be “challenging” employees?: A critical review and meta‐analysis of the challenge‐hindrance model of stress

The challenge‐hindrance model of stress proposes that stressors can be divided into two distinct groups: those that challenge employees and those that hinder employees. This critical review seeks to explain the history of the model and its basic tenets, while succinctly summarizing the findings of existing studies based on the model. A thorough search of the stress literature uncovered 32 studies that specifically examined the relationship between challenge and hindrance stressors and important personal/organizational variables. Results were reviewed and analyzed, specifically by describing past meta‐analyses on the model, looking at the overall pattern of results from primary studies, and meta‐analyzing the relationships presented in those papers. This synthesis suggests that although there are some differential relationships of challenge and hindrance stressors with organizational variables (e.g., performance and engagement), the relationships to other key variables, such as counterproductive work behaviors, psychological strains, and physical health, are consistently negative for both challenge and hindrance stressors. Thus, we propose that stress research move away from the current challenge‐hindrance model in favor of other established models and/or a more appraisal‐based approach.     

Negotiating a flexible work arrangement: How women navigate the influence of power and organizational context

Prior work‐life research has highlighted that while organizations may be introducing more work‐life policies, organizational members are not necessarily using these policies. Empirical research is needed that focuses on the individual and provides insight into who is taking advantage of these policies and how they go about negotiating access. In this study, we explore this issue as we investigate the behavioral dynamics that underlie women's experiences negotiating a flexible work arrangement. Focusing on the individual, we examine the influence that perceptions of power and organizational work‐life support have on flexible work arrangement negotiations. The results of our research indicate that both macro level factors such as perceived work life support and micro level factors such as perceptions of power affect both the process and outcomes of these negotiations. We explore the implications these findings have for work‐life and negotiation research. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Total quality management and performance appraisal: an experimental study of process versus results and group versus individual approaches

This study investigated the effect of a process versus a results focus as well as a group versus individual‐based approach to performance appraisals. Four experimental conditions were investigated, with dependent variables of appraisal satisfaction, perceived accuracy of the performance appraisal, expectations of performance improvement, and actual performance. The results showed that a process focus appraisal had a more positive impact than an exclusively results‐oriented appraisal on ratee appraisal satisfaction, perceived appraisal accuracy, and expectations of performance improvement. Subjects receiving process appraisal feedback also showed a greater improvement in actual performance during a subsequent trial compared to subjects that did not receive process feedback. No differences were found between the group‐ and the individual‐based performance appraisal conditions. Implications of these findings for appraisal processes in general, and total quality initiatives in particular, are discussed. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.