城市及城市化的生态学过程及问题探讨

通过分析城市生态系统的特点,本文从生态学观点出发探讨了城市化过程对自然生态系统种群、结构和功能的影响,揭示了城市化过程实质上是一种从稳定的自然和半自然生态系统向不能自稳定的人工生态系统过渡的过程。     

基于生态系统服务价值的城市增长边界划定研究:以衡阳市中心城区为例

科学评估土地生态价值,并将其纳入城市规划实践,是落实国家生态文明战略要求的重要手段。城市增长边界是统筹城市开发建设与区域生态保护的重要政策工具,针对以往划定方法对生态系统服务功能考虑不足的问题,提出一种新的城市增长边界划定方法。以衡阳市中心城区为例,基于反规划理念,以2005—2015年区域生态系统服务价值评估为基础构建生态安全格局,通过耦合城市生态安全格局与基于未来土地利用模拟(future land use simulation,FLUS)模型的城市扩张模拟结果划定城市增长边界。结果表明:(1)2005—2015年衡阳市中心城区生态系统服务价值总量从25.71亿元下降到24.75亿元,水文调节和水资源供给服务功能价值量呈上升趋势,其余各项生态系统服务价值呈下降趋势。(2)研究区城市刚性增长边界面积为17 325.72 hm~2,主要沿湘江及其支流蒸水和耒水分布,形成"三廊、三片"的空间结构。(3)2030年城市弹性增长边界面积为20 238.57 hm~2,空间形态呈"一个中心区、多个组团"分布。考虑生态系统服务功能的限制开发条件后,研究区生态用地得到更多保护,区域生态系统服务总价值比基准情景高0.61亿元,更利于区域生态系统服务功能的维持和区域生态安全的发展。该研究方法和结果可用于科学评估城市扩张的生态成本,有效解决城市发展与生态保护之间的矛盾,同时也可为城市总体规划、生态保护专项规划以及国土空间规划提供重要依据。     

基于土地利用／覆被变化的重庆城市生态系统服务价值研究

参考COSTANZA以及谢高地等提出的生态系统服务价值系数,制定了符合城市生态系统的服务价值系数.基于重庆市主城区1993、2000和2004年3期土地利用/覆被(LUCC)变化数据,对重庆市主城区的生态系统服务价值进行了估算.结果表明:重庆自1997年成为直辖市后,耕地、林地大量向城市建设用地转化,城市生态系统服务价值急剧降低.1993年重庆市主城区生态系统总服务价值为564.75×106元,2004年为387.71×106元,下降了31.3%.生态服务价值系数的变化对重庆城市生态系统总服务价值的影响缺乏弹性.水域和林地面积变化对重庆市主城区生态系统总服务价值影响明显.     

江苏省生态红线区域划分与保护

生态红线是我国近年来提出的全新概念,也是环境保护转变思路和积极创新的重要成果,生态红线的划定与保护是实现生态系统管理的重要一步。江苏省生态红线区域是在对区域生态环境现状评估和生态环境敏感性评估的基础上,以自然生态系统的完整性、生态系统服务功能的一致性和生态空间的连续性为基准,通过分析生态系统服务功能的重要性划分的。全省共划分为15类生态红线区域,分为两级管控。     

城市森林生态系统滞纳空气颗粒物功能向生态系统服务的转化率

生态系统服务是生态系统功能中有利于人类福祉的部分,生态系统功能向服务的转化研究成为未来生态系统服务评估的重要发展方向.以大气环境污染较为严重的北京市和陕西省关中地区的城市森林生态系统为例,利用气溶胶再形成法,研究不同树种和污染区城市森林生态系统滞纳空气颗粒物能力,探讨其向服务的转化率问题.结果表明,城市森林生态系统中不同树种滞纳空气颗粒物功能向服务的转化率存在差异,雪松最高,达95%,而白皮松最低,仅为47%,树种滞纳颗粒物能力与转化率没有必然联系,电镜扫描结果显示与叶表微观结构特征如气孔大小或多少、绒毛长短、蜡质层有无等有关.空气污染强度不同的多个城市中,转化率为宝鸡西安咸阳韩城杨凌渭南铜川,空气污染严重的城市转化率较高,空气质量优越且颗粒物含量少的城市,转化率相对较低.因此,叶片表面结构和树种所处地区的空气污染程度共同决定了城市森林生态系统滞纳空气颗粒物功能向服务的转化率;空气质量较差地区应增加绿地面积、提高植被覆盖率,有针对性地选择转化率较高的树种.     

鼎湖山南亚热带森林生态系统服务价值动态

以鼎湖山3个南亚热带森林演替典型阶段生态系统为对象,采用我国《森林生态系统服务功能评估规范》(LY/T 1721—2008)标准化计算公式与服务价格,量化揭示南亚热带森林生态系统演替过程中生态系统服务功能价值动态。结果表明:随着演替的进行,南亚热带森林生态系统服务功能总价值不断增大;但各分项服务功能价值则表现出不同的动态规律与变化幅度,从而使得森林生态系统服务结构呈现非线性演化特征。在南亚热带森林生态系统演替的早期阶段,生态系统服务价值的最大组分是涵养水源的功能价值,而中、后期则是保育土壤。人工林营造可以有效增强区域生态系统的水源涵养能力,而保育演替中、后期森林则对于大气CO2收和土壤保育而言尤为重要。     

县域生态服务功能价值评估及提升路径——以龙山县为例

参照千年生态系统评估框架,建立了龙山县生态系统服务功能价值评价指标体系.在分析评估龙山县生态系统提供的各项服务功能价值的基础上,对提升生态系统服务功能价值提出了探讨.结果表明龙山县生态系统服务功能的总价值是93.69亿元,高于龙山县2014年的GDP61.33亿元,同时也证明生态功能区划对生态服务功能价值有一定的提升.从研究结果来看,龙山县生态系统服务功能价值巨大,该结果有利于加强人们对生态系统的认识,也说明了维持生态环境对可持续发展具有举足轻重的作用.图3,表3,参17.     

水电开发对河流生态系统服务功能影响的价值评估初探

提出了计算“流量”,即计算受水电开发影响的河流生态系统服务功能的价值变化量的评估思路和方法,并以广东省河源市风光水利枢纽工程为案例进行了定量分析。在对河流生态系统服务功能进行分类的基础上,根据河流生态系统服务功能可能受到水电开发影响的现实情况和影响特征,选择适当的生态系统服务功能价值核算的方法和参数,计算受影响的生态系统服务功能的价值变化量。案例研究结果表明,风光水利枢纽工程开发方案引起的河流生态服务功能价值变化的正效益为7 676万元/a,负效益为-3 894万元/a,负效益占到其正效益的一半以上,说明该工程开发对东江河流生态系统的消极负面影响也是不容忽视的,应采取适当的生态补偿措施。     

深圳市快速城市化对城市生态系统碳动态的影响研究

城市化已成为全球土地覆被变化的主要驱动因素之一。城市化及其引起的土地覆被变化对城市生态系统碳动态具有重要的影响。以快速城市化的典型区域——深圳市为例,采用遥感影像解译与实地生态调查相结合的方法,研究了1986—2015年间城市化引起的土地覆被变化对城市生态系统碳密度和碳储量的影响,旨在加深对城市生态系统碳循环的认知,为城市生态系统碳管理提供科学依据。研究结果显示,(1)研究区城市化过程中土地覆被变化的主要特征是建设用地的急剧扩张。林地、耕地、园地等在面积减少的同时,景观趋于破碎化。(2)研究区植被和土壤的碳密度呈现出明显的空间异质性。研究时段内,植被和土壤的平均碳密度分别减少了约5.1 t?hm~(-2)、11.8 t?hm~(-2)。(3)研究区城市生态系统碳储量的变化大致经历了3个阶段:城市化"初始期"以自然植被和农业用地为主的高碳储量期;城市化"加速期"建设用地快速扩张带来的城市生态系统碳储量急剧下降;城市化"稳定期"城市生态系统碳储量逐渐恢复。(4)研究时段内土地覆被变化造成研究区城市生态系统约16.8 t?hm~(-2)的碳损失,占城市生态系统碳储量的37.7%。虽然城市化总体上导致了城市生态系统碳密度和碳储量的减少,但通过适当的城市植被与土壤的碳管理措施可以使城市生态系统碳库逐渐得到恢复。     

张承地区生态系统服务及其区域关联分析

区域生态系统服务及其辐射效应评估能够揭示研究区域生态-经济-社会耦合系统的整体性和关联性特征。基于张承地区2013年遥感影像和生态服务价值化方法,评估分析了该区域地表覆被组成、关键生态系统服务及其对北京市的辐射效益。结果发现,张承地区约97%地表覆被为林草地和农田,是发挥生态屏障功能的主体;该地区自然生态系统可提供的关键生态系统服务价值为1 895亿元·a-1,高值区分布在林草植被集中的承德市以及张家口市的东南部地区;张承地区每年约有21%关键生态系统服务以水和风为介质辐射到北京市,其中,怀来、赤城、宣化、涿鹿、崇礼和沽源等县与北京市的生态系统服务关联度较高,是北京市外来生态系统服务的主要输入区。该研究对于揭示京津冀区域生态系统整体性以及科学构建区域生态修复与合作机制具有一定的参考价值。     

城市生态系统服务功能的价值结构分析

本文从城市生态系统价值体系出发,探讨城市自然资本,经济资本和社会资本综合测算的理论与方法,结果表明：示范区的自然总资本以年均４％的速度递减,其真实总资本年均增长率为４．５％而不是国内生产总值的１２．６％,自然资本的增减应成为衡量一个城市或区域是否实现可持续发展的核心指标。城市生态系统中自然资本由持续递减变为递增,是实现人类共同追求的可持续发展目标必由之路。     

Ecosystem Services as a Common Language for Coastal Ecosystem-Based Management

Abstract:  Ecosystem-based management is logistically and politically challenging because ecosystems are inherently complex and management decisions affect a multitude of groups. Coastal ecosystems, which lie at the interface between marine and terrestrial ecosystems and provide an array of ecosystem services to different groups, aptly illustrate these challenges. Successful ecosystem-based management of coastal ecosystems requires incorporating scientific information and the knowledge and views of interested parties into the decision-making process. Estimating the provision of ecosystem services under alternative management schemes offers a systematic way to incorporate biogeophysical and socioeconomic information and the views of individuals and groups in the policy and management process. Employing ecosystem services as a common language to improve the process of ecosystem-based management presents both benefits and difficulties. Benefits include a transparent method for assessing trade-offs associated with management alternatives, a common set of facts and common currency on which to base negotiations, and improved communication among groups with competing interests or differing worldviews. Yet challenges to this approach remain, including predicting how human interventions will affect ecosystems, how such changes will affect the provision of ecosystem services, and how changes in service provision will affect the welfare of different groups in society. In a case study from Puget Sound, Washington, we illustrate the potential of applying ecosystem services as a common language for ecosystem-based management.     

Effects of Urban Development on Ant Communities: Implications for Ecosystem Services and Management

Abstract:  Research that connects the effects of urbanization on biodiversity and ecosystem services is lacking. Ants perform multifarious ecological functions that stabilize ecosystems and contribute to a number of ecosystem services. We studied responses of ant communities to urbanization in the Lake Tahoe basin by sampling sites along a gradient of urban land development. We sampled ant communities, measured vegetation characteristics, quantified human activities, and evaluated ant-community responses by grouping ants into service-providing units (SPUs), defined as a group of organisms and their populations that perform specific ecosystem services, to provide an understanding of urbanization impacts on biodiversity and their delivery of ecosystem services. Species richness and abundance peaked at intermediate levels of urban development, as did the richness of 3 types of ant SPUs (aerators, decomposers, and compilers). With increasing land development aerator and decomposer ants significantly declined in abundance, whereas compiler ants significantly increased in abundance. Competing models demonstrated that precipitation was frequently among the strongest influences on ant community structure; however, urban development and human activities also had a strong, negative influence on ants, appearing in most models with ΔAIC_c < 2 for species richness and abundance patterns of SPUs and generalists. Response diversity was observed within SPUs, which suggests that the corresponding ecosystem services were maintained until development reached 30–40%. Our data provide evidence that ecosystem functions, such as water infiltration and soil productivity, may be diminished at sites subject to greater levels of urbanization and that conserving ant communities and the ecosystem services they provide could be an important target in land-use planning and conservation efforts.     

The multifunctionality of the natural environment through the basic ecosystem services in the Florina region,Greece

Until the last decade, protecting the environment was seen as a factor contributing to human well-being, and conservation of natural ecosystems was considered to be one of the most important factors of environmental protection. Numerous studies have dealt with the benefits of natural ecosystems and in recent years even more so with ecosystem services, as well as interactions of ecosystem services with each other and with the urban and peri-urban environment. This paper suggests an approach to the spatial unity of the Florina region using basic ecosystem services identified by land use. The aim was, first, to describe the spatial distribution of basic ecosystem services and their interactions and, second, to investigate whether they form important statistical correlations with the basic features of the prefecture. A 1 km × 1 km analysis of 10 ecosystem services covering the surface of the prefecture was carried out.     

Obscuring Ecosystem Function with Application of the Ecosystem Services Concept

Abstract: Conservationists commonly have framed ecological concerns in economic terms to garner political support for conservation and to increase public interest in preserving global biodiversity. Beginning in the early 1980s, conservation biologists adapted neoliberal economics to reframe ecosystem functions and related biodiversity as ecosystem services to humanity. Despite the economic success of programs such as the Catskill/Delaware watershed management plan in the United States and the creation of global carbon exchanges, today's marketplace often fails to adequately protect biodiversity. We used a Marxist critique to explain one reason for this failure and to suggest a possible, if partial, response. Reframing ecosystem functions as economic services does not address the political problem of commodification. Just as it obscures the labor of human workers, commodification obscures the importance of the biota (ecosystem workers) and related abiotic factors that contribute to ecosystem functions. This erasure of work done by ecosystems impedes public understanding of biodiversity. Odum and Odum's radical suggestion to use the language of ecosystems (i.e., emergy or energy memory) to describe economies, rather than using the language of economics (i.e., services) to describe ecosystems, reverses this erasure of the ecosystem worker. Considering the current dominance of economic forces, however, implementing such solutions would require social changes similar in magnitude to those that occurred during the 1960s. Niklas Luhmann argues that such substantive, yet rapid, social change requires synergy among multiple societal function systems (i.e., economy, education, law, politics, religion, science), rather than reliance on a single social sphere, such as the economy. Explicitly presenting ecosystem services as discreet and incomplete aspects of ecosystem functions not only allows potential economic and environmental benefits associated with ecosystem services, but also enables the social and political changes required to ensure valuation of ecosystem functions and related biodiversity in ways beyond their measurement on an economic scale.     

Restoration of badlands and natural capital: an application in Saldaña (Palencia,northern Spain)

The environment provides many necessary services for a plethora of human activities related to that are being acknowledged as our ecosystems degrade; therefore, ecosystem-based solutions are becoming increasingly more important. Hydrologic restorations (HRs) apply this type of ecosystem approach; there are multiple examples around the Mediterranean area executed since the beginning of the twentieth century. One good example of these restoration-type solutions can be seen in the badlands of Saldaña (Palencia, Spain). This case has been particularly successful in stopping gully erosion from badlands. Despite its importance for the well-being of the inhabitants of Saldaña and surroundings, the economic effects of these services which were put into place by this HR have never been assessed. In the present study, four different and compatible ecosystem restored services have been valued in monetary terms. For their aggregation, an innovative approach has been taken using the analytic hierarchy process methodology, so the weight of each ecosystem service (ES) can be determined. The economic flow of these ESs has been calculated in terms of annual income and updated values, from which natural capital increase in the population of Saldaña can be assessed. After analysing the results, it can be concluded that the village has earned more than seven million euros, which, in turn, generates important benefits to its inhabitants.     

Urban ecosystem health assessment based on emergy and set pair analysis—A comparative study of typical Chinese cities

Regarding various energy and materials flowing in the urban ecosystem and the merit of emergy as an embodied energetic equivalent for integrated ecological economic evaluation, an evaluation framework of emergy-based urban ecosystem health indicators (UEHI_em) was established in view of five aspects including vigor, structure, resilience, ecosystem service function maintenance and environmental impact to depict the urban ecosystem health states. Further, set pair analysis (SPA) was employed to assess the urban ecosystem health level based on the UEHI_em, by which the approximate degree of real index set to the optimal one was defined and evaluated to describe the relative health state of the concerned urban ecosystems. Choosing twenty typical Chinese cities in 2005 as cases, we evaluated and compared their urban ecosystem health levels based on UEHI_em and SPA. The results showed that health levels of Xiamen, Qingdao, Shenzhen and Shanghai are pretty well, while those of Wuhan, Harbin, Yinchuan, Beijing and Urumchi are relatively weak. Moreover, the relative health levels were analyzed by SPA to discern the influences of the mentioned five aspects on the UEHI_em. It is concluded that emergy synthesis combined with SPA can serve as an effective relative-measure to compare different ecosystem health levels of urban ecosystems.     

陆地生态系统臭氧干沉降的观测和模拟研究进展

近地层臭氧(O_3)会对植物的生长和产量均产生一定的负效应。由于人类活动引起的不断升高的近地层O_3浓度已经威胁到世界粮食安全。O_3主要以干沉降的方式沉降到陆地生态系统,所以需要定量确定陆地生态系统中O_3通量、干沉降速率和不同沉降通道的沉降过程,预测其对植物的潜在影响。介绍了目前O_3干沉降的主要观测方法及其模拟模型,从4个方面(O_3通量和干沉降速率的季节变化、日变化、气象因子等对O_3干沉降的影响、不同O_3沉降通道的沉降过程)重点评述了不同陆地生态系统O_3干沉降观测和模拟的研究进展现状,并对未来的研究工作进行了展望,以期为我国未来开展相关研究工作提供借鉴。     

陆地生态系统臭氧干沉降的观测和模拟研究进展

近地层臭氧(O³)会对植物的生长和产量均产生一定的负效应。由于人类活动引起的不断升高的近地层O³浓度已经威胁到世界粮食安全。O³主要以干沉降的方式沉降到陆地生态系统,所以需要定量确定陆地生态系统中O³通量、干沉降速率和不同沉降通道的沉降过程,预测其对植物的潜在影响。介绍了目前O³干沉降的主要观测方法及其模拟模型,从4个方面(O³通量和干沉降速率的季节变化、日变化、气象因子等对O³干沉降的影响、不同O³沉降通道的沉降过程)重点评述了不同陆地生态系统O³干沉降观测和模拟的研究进展现状,并对未来的研究工作进行了展望,以期为我国未来开展相关研究工作提供借鉴。     

A concise review of ecological risk assessment for urban ecosystem application associated with rapid urbanization processes

ABSTRACT

Urban ecological risk (UER) caused by rapid urbanization means potential threat to urban ecosystem structure, pattern and services. The scales of ecological risk assessment (ERA) have been expanded from individual organisms to watersheds and regions. The types of stressor range from chemical to physical, biological and natural events. However, the application of ERA in urban ecosystems is relatively new. Here, we summarize the progress of urban ERA and propose an explicit framework to illumine future ERA based on UER identification, analysis, characterization, modeling, projection and early warning and management. The summary includes six urban ERA-relevant methods: weight-of-evidence (WoE), procedure for ecological tiered assessment of risks (PETAR), relative risk model (RRM), multimedia, multi-pathway, multi-receptor risk assessment (3MRA), landscape analysis and ecological models. Furthermore, we review critical cases of urban ERA in landscape ecology, soil, air, water and solid waste. Based on the Internet of Things (IoT) and cloud computing, an urban ERA management platform integrates various urban ERA methodologies that can be developed to provide better implementation strategies of UER for urban ecosystem managers and stakeholders. We develop a conceptual model of urban ERA based on the urban characteristics in China. The future applications of urban ERA include uncertainty analysis using Monte Carlo techniques on the basis of geospatial techniques and comprehensive urban ERA using nonlinear models or process models.