Atmospheric deposition of organochlorine contaminants to Galveston Bay,Texas

Atmospheric monitoring of PCBs and chlorinated pesticides (e.g., HCHs, chlordanes, and DDTs) in Galveston Bay was conducted at Seabrook, Texas. Air and wet deposition samples were collected from 2 February 1995 and continued through 6 August 1996. Vapor total PCB (tPCB) concentrations in air ranged from 0.21 to 4.78 ng m⁻³ with a dominance of tri-chlorinated PCBs. Dissolved tPCBs in rain ranged from 0.08 to 3.34 ng l⁻¹, with tetra-chlorinated PCBs predominating. The predominant isomers found in air and rain were α- and γ-HCH, α- and γ-chlordanes, 4,4′-DDT, and dieldrin. The concentrations of PCBs and pesticides in the air and rain revealed no clear seasonal trend. Elevated levels of PCBs in the air occurred when temperatures were high and wind came from urban and industrialized areas (S, SW, NW, and W of the site). Concentrations of HCHs were elevated in April, May, and October, perhaps due to local and/or regional applications of γ-HCH (lindane). Other pesticides showed no notable temporal variation. When winds originated from the Gulf of Mexico (southeasterly), lower concentrations of organochlorines were detected in the air. The direct deposition rate (wet+dry) of PCBs to Galveston Bay (6.40 μg m⁻² yr⁻¹) was significantly higher than that of pesticides by a factor of 5–10. The net flux from gas exchange estimated for PCBs was from Galveston Bay water to the atmosphere (78 μg m⁻² yr⁻¹). Gas exchange of PCBs from bay water to the atmosphere was the dominant flux.     

PCDD/F and PCB multi-media ambient concentrations, congener patterns and occurrence in a Mediterranean coastal lagoon (Etang de Thau, France)

Ambient concentrations, congener patterns and multi-media distribution of PCDD/Fs and PCBs were determined in air, water, sediment and mussels in a semi-enclosed marine ecosystem (Thau lagoon, France). summation operator2,3,7,8-PCDD/F and summation operator7ICES PCB air concentrations (0.2-1.4 and 31-57pg m(-3), respectively) were typical of rural areas. Concentrations in the water column were very low for PCDD/Fs (163-476fg L(-1)) and low for PCBs (138-708pg L(-1)). PCDD/F and PCB concentrations found in surface sediment (0.15-1.6 and 2.5-33ng g(-1) d.w., respectively) and mussel (13-21pg g(-1) d.w. and 10-39ng g(-1) d.w., respectively) were medium levels. PCDD/F congener patterns observed in air, water particulate phase and sediments were similar suggesting direct coupling among these compartments and atmospheric inputs of PCDD/Fs into the lagoon. Conversely, for the same set of samples, similar patterns were not observed for PCBs in the mentioned compartments.     

Seasonal air-water exchange fluxes of polychlorinated biphenyls in the Hudson River Estuary

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were measured in the air and water over the Hudson River Estuary during six intensive field campaigns from December 1999 to April 2001. Over-water gas-phase SigmaPCB concentrations averaged 1100 pg/m3 and varied with temperature. Dissolved-phase SigmaPCB concentrations averaged 1100 pg/L and displayed no seasonal trend. Uncertainty analysis of the results suggests that PCBs with 5 or fewer chlorines exhibited net volatilization. The direction of net air/water exchange could not be determined for PCBs with 6 or more chlorines. Instantaneous net fluxes of SigmaPCBs ranged from +0.2 to +630 ng m(-2) d(-1). Annual fluxes of SigmaPCBs were predicted from modeled gas-phase concentrations, measured dissolved-phase concentrations, daily surface water temperatures and wind speeds. The net volatilization flux was +62 microg m(-2) yr(-1), corresponding to an annual loss of +28 kg/yr of SigmaPCBs from the Hudson River Estuary for the year of 2000.     

Air-sea gas exchange of HCHs and PCBs and enantiomers of alpha-HCH in the Kattegat Sea region

Concentrations and air-water gas exchange of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) were determined in nine paired air and water samples. The samples were collected monthly in the Kattegat Sea between December 1998 and November 1999. Average fugacity and flux values indicated that PCBs were oversaturated in the water, while HCHs were net deposited. Variations were large over the year, especially during spring and summer. Air parcel back trajectories suggested that air concentrations over the Kattegat Sea are largely dependent of air mass origin. Seasonal trends were detected for airborne HCHs and for PCBs in water. The air and water enantiomeric compositions of alpha-HCH indicated that a larger portion of alpha-HCH in air originated from the underlying water during summer than during winter.     

The air-water exchange of polychlorinated biphenyls and polybrominated diphenyl ethers at an urban lake, a receipt water body for the effluent from a municipal sewage treatment plant

The effluents and sludge from municipal sewage treatment plants (MSTPs) are considered as potential sources of many contaminants to the ambient environments. In the present work, the air-water exchange of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) was studied using passive air samplers at an urban lake, which receives the effluents from a MSTP in Beijing, China. The concentrations of PCBs and PBDEs in atmosphere were in the range 15.5-108 ng sample⁻¹ and 2.37-27.8 ng sample⁻¹, respectively, during the sampling period (August, 2007-July, 2008). The predominant PCBs and PBDEs were lowly halogenated congeners. The calculation for the exchange fluxes of PCBs and PBDEs using fugacity model showed that, the net exchange fluxes in different seasons were closely related to the halogen number of different congeners. Except for CBs-28 and 52, the net exchange fluxes was mainly directed from air to water for most of predominant congeners, which implied that the lower chlorinated CBs were dominated by volatilization process rather than the dry/wet depositions and diffusion between air-water interface, additionally, for heavy congeners, the dry/wet deposition process was an important source of PCBs and PBDEs in this lake.     

Estimation of the contribution of a municipal waste incinerator to the overall emission and human intake of PCBs in Wilrijk, Flanders

The contribution of the emission of PCBs by a municipal waste incinerator in Wilrijk, a relatively industrialized district in the largest city of Flanders, to the total emission to air and to the total human intake was estimated. Therefore it was compared to the emission of PCBs by evaporation from PCB containing applications (transformers, capacitors, paint, ink, etc.) and to the intake of PCBs with food. As there was a lack of PCB data from the incinerator, the PCB emission concentration was estimated using three different approaches. A PCB measurement of the incinerator emission, performed later on, fell within the predicted range of 0.0004-0.005 ng TEQ/Nm3. Emission of PCBs from PCB containing applications and intake from food were deduced from information available on Flemish and European level. The results indicate a PCB contribution from the incinerator to local emissions between 0.3% and 3% of the emission from PCB containing applications and a contribution to human intake less than 6 x 10(-4)% of the intake from food.     

Concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in water, sediment, and aquatic biota in the Houston Ship Channel, Texas

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were quantified in water, sediment, and catfish and crab tissue collected from the Houston Ship Channel (HSC) in Texas. The total concentrations of the 209 PCB congeners ranged from 0.49 to 12.49 ng l(-1), 4.18 to 4601 ng g(-1) dry wt, 4.13 to 1596 ng g(-1) wet wt, and 3.44 to 169 ng g(-1) wet wt, in water, sediment, catfish and crab tissue, respectively. All media showed maximum concentrations greater than studies in other regions with the highest concentrations occurring in the most industrialized segments of the channel. Inter-media correlations suggested that sediment is a source to water. Galveston Bay sediment concentrations compared to a previous study showed a declining trend though the rate of the decline may be slowing. Detailed homolog profiles revealed that the industrialized part of the channel may be receiving PCB-laden sediment from its tributaries. An unusually high fraction of the deca-chlorinated congener (PCB-209) was found in all media. Seen in only a few other studies and in previous air concentrations in the channel, this may point to unusual Aroclor mixtures used in the history of the HSC or to contemporary sources from local industry. A comparison of PCB concentrations obtained using Aroclor, representative congener, and all congener methods, indicated that Aroclors are not an appropriate surrogate for total PCBs and that the NOAA NST method is more representative than the NOAA EPA method.     

Occurrence of PAHs, PCBs and organochlorine pesticides in the Tonghui River of Beijing, China

Tonghui River, a typical river in Beijing, People's Republic of China, was studied for its water and sediment quality, by determining the levels of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 12 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and 18 organochlorine pesticides in water and sediment samples. Total PAHs, PCBs and organochlorine pesticides concentrations in water varied from 192.5 to 2651 ng/l, 31.58-344.9 ng/l and 134.9-3788 ng/l, respectively. The total PAHs, PCBs and organochlorine pesticides concentrations in surficial sediments were 127-928 ng/g, 0.78-8.47 ng/g and 1.79-13.98 ng/g dry weight, respectively. The results showed that the concentration of these selected organic pollutants in sediment was higher than those in surface water. It may be due to the fact that organic hydrophobic pollutants tend to stay in the sediments. The PAHs were dominated by 2-, 3-ring components in water samples and by 3- and 4-ring compounds in sediment. For organochlorines, alpha-HCH, delta-HCH, Heptachlor, Endosulfan II, DDT are the major organochlorine pesticides in water while Heptachlor, Dieldrin and DDE composed of 95% of total organochlorine pesticides in sediment. For HCHs (HCHs=alpha-HCH+beta-HCH+gamma-HCH+delta-HCH), the predominance of alpha-HCH of total HCHs were clearly observed in water and sediment. PCB18, PCB31 and PCB52 were predominant in water, on average these compounds collectively accounted for 67% of total PCBs. But in sediment, the predominant compounds were PCB28, PCB31 and PCB153, which accounted for 71% of total PCBs in sediment. The levels of micro pollutants in our study areas were compared with other studies.     

Application of canonical correspondence analysis to determine the ecological contribution of phytoplankton to PCBs bioaccumulation in Qinhuai River,Nanjing, China

The distribution and interactions of phytoplankton and 14 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were investigated using canonical correspondence analysis in autumn in the Qinhuai River, Nanjing, China. Concentrations of PCBs in water and algal samples ranged from 33.78 to 144.84 ng/L and from 0.21 to 19.66 ng/L (0.06 to 3.04 ng/mg biomass), respectively. The predominant residual species of PCBs in water samples were tri- through hexachlorobiphenyls, and the predominant residuals in algae were tri-, tetra-, and heptachlorobiphenyls. The degree of eutrophication affected phytoplankton composition and PCB bioaccumulation, and led to sample site- and algal species specificity of PCB residues in the study area. Chlorophyta, Bacillariophyta, and Euglenophyta had strong capacities to take up PCBs, whereas Cyanophyta was less involved in the transfer of these compounds. Bioaccumulation of PCBs by algae may be affected by water quality, chlorination, phytoplankton composition, and the structure of the PCBs and the algal cell walls.     

Polychlorinated biphenyls and hexachlorobenzene in atmosphere, sea-surface microlayer, and water measured with semi-permeable membrane devices (SPMDs).

The time evolution of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) levels and hexachlorobenzene (HCB) levels in air, seawater, and at the sea-air boundary layer was examined during autumn and winter at a near-shore location in the Western Wadden Sea (Netherlands), using semi-permeable membrane devices (SPMDs). Performance reference compounds (PRCs) were added to the SPMDs prior to exposure for measuring the in situ exchange kinetics. For PCBs, a fair degree of equilibrium between atmosphere and water was found. HCB concentrations in the atmosphere were about eight times higher than the equilibrium concentration. PCB concentrations in seawater and atmosphere fell by a factor of 2-10, respectively, during the sampling period. HCB concentrations in water increased by a factor of 2. Atmospheric concentrations of HCB showed a decrease by a factor of about 10. Results for the sea-surface microlayer (SSM) deployment showed that the chemical activities at the air-water interface did not differ from those in deeper water layers. This means that the SSM was of no special toxicological significance in this study as far as PCBs and HCB are concerned.     

Occurrence of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) together with sediment properties in the surface sediments of the Bering Sea, Chukchi Sea and Canada Basin

The spatial distribution and potential source of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in surface sediments from Bering Sea, Chukchi Sea, and Canada Basin and the relationship between PCBs and sedimentary properties including grain size, water content, loss on ignition, total organic carbon, and black carbon were explored. ΣPCBs (the sum of the detected PCB congeners) concentrations fluctuated in the study area, ranging from 22-150, 60-640 and 24-600 pg g(-1) dry weight for the Bering Sea, Chukchi Sea, and Canada Basin. A similar homologue pattern was observed at different locations, with tri-chlorinated PCBs being the dominant homologue, implying that the PCBs came mainly from the atmospheric transportation and deposition and ocean current transportation. No apparent co-relationships between PCB concentrations and sediment properties were obtained, indicating that the distribution of PCBs was not only controlled by their source, but also by the multi-factors such as atmospheric transport and depositing, mixing, partitioning and sorption in the water column and sediments.     

Concentrations and possible sources of polychlorinated biphenyls in the surface water of the Yangtze River Delta, China

In this study, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) pollution in the surface water of the Yangtze River Delta (YRD) was investigated. A total of 26 samples were collected from water bodies in three cities within the YRD during the dry season from October to November of 2009. The total PCBs (dissolved plus particulate) ranged from 1.23 to 16.6 ng L(-1) and were dominated by tri-, tetra-, and penta-chlorinated biphenyls. The mean PCBs in the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal and the Yangtze River were 8.84 and 3.36 ng L(-1), respectively. A t-test showed that there were no significant differences in the concentration of samples from the metropolitan area and the development zone. According to the Chinese national environmental quality standards for surface water (GB 3838-2002), the concentrations of PCBs observed in this study do not pose a hazard to aquatic or human health. Overall, this study described the PCB concentration and homolog distribution patterns in one of the most rapidly developing areas in China, and the results can be used as reference levels for future PCB monitoring programs.     

PCBs,PCNs, PCDD/Fs,PAHs and Cl-PAHs in air and water particulate samples--patterns and variations

Methodology for the determination of biologically active polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), non-ortho PCBs, polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was used to investigate concentrations and patterns of certain chlorinated PAH (Cl-PAH) in source related samples using synthetic reference mixtures. Thus, in addition to the above mentioned compounds, mono-heptachlorosubstituted fluorenes, phenanthrenes/anthracenes and pyrenes/fluoranthenes (Cl-PAHs) were measured in vapour and particulate air samples from urban road tunnels, samples of settling particulate matter (SPM), and in bottom sediment samples from two point source locations (pulp and paper, and Mg-plant/Fe-Mn-smelter/chlor-alkali) and in the Baltic Sea. Concentrations in air samples followed: PAHs>PCBs>PCNs>non-ortho PCBs or Cl-PAHs>PCDD/Fs. SPM samples collected at increasing distance to the urban area of Stockholm showed: PAHs>PCBs>PCNs>PCDD/Fs>non-ortho PCBs or Cl-PAHs. For all compound groups there was a tenfold (Cl-PAHs fivefold) concentration decrease in SPM samples from highest levels in the urban water area to lowest levels at a distance of 26 km from city centre. PCB profiles of SPM showed similarities with combined profiles of Aroclor 1242 and 1254. PCN profiles of SPM showed similarities with combined profiles of Halowax 1099 and 1014. A correlation with concentration of all tested Cl-PAH and their corresponding parent PAH was found only for Cl-fluorene.     

Levels,congener profile and inventory of polychlorinated biphenyls in sediment from the Songhua River in the vicinity of cement plant,China: a case study

This study investigated the contamination levels, homologue, and congener profiles and evaluated the residue inventory of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in sediment of the Songhua River in the vicinity of cement plant. The total concentration of detected 35 PCB congeners ranged from 1.12 to 2.19 ng/g dry weight (dw) in sediment, with a mean value of 1.56 ng/g dw, and the concentration of PCBs decreased in the following order: the downstream?>?cement plant?>?upstream. The results of total organic carbon (TOC)-normalized PCB concentrations indicate that the sediments have low potential ecological risk in this area. The study results on homologue and congener of PCBs show that the emissions from cement production could be the major sources of PCBs in sediment, and the low-chlorinated PCBs will be exchanged among air, water, and sediment with increasing temperature during summer and flow to downstream with water during the wet season. The spatial density and total burden of PCBs in the surface sediments were 17.2 ng/cm² and 1.2 kg, respectively. To our knowledge, this study is the first to explore the pollution characteristics of unintentionally produced PCB emissions from cement industry by means of monitoring sediment samples.     

Atmospheric concentration characteristics and gas-particle partitioning of PCBs in a rural area of eastern Germany

Atmospheric concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were measured in 14 successive daytime and nighttime air samples collected from Melpitz, a rural site in eastern Germany. The average total concentration of PCBs was 110+/-80 pg m-3 and they were predominately present in the gas phase (approximately 95%). Composition of individual congeners closely resembled those of Clophen A30 and Aroclor 1232. Partial vapor pressures of PCBs were well correlated with temperature and the steep slopes obtained from Clausius-Clapeyron plots (-4500 to -8000) indicated that evaporation from adjacent land surfaces still controls the atmospheric levels of these pollutants. Particle-gas partitioning coefficients (KP) of PCBs were well correlated with the respective sub-cooled vapor pressures (PLo), but the slopes obtained from logKP versus logPLo plots (-0.16 to -0.59) deviated significantly from the expected value of -1. Overall, gas-particle partitioning of PCBs was better simulated by Junge-Pankow than octanol/air partition coefficient-based model.     

The significance of PCBs in the atmosphere of the southern hemisphere

Air monitoring stations were set up at 2 sites in the southern hemisphere--Moody Brook, Falkland Island (51 degrees 25' S, 57 degrees 56' W) and Halley, Research Station, Antarctica (75 degrees 35' S, 26 degrees 30' W). PCBs were monitored at the stations throughout 1999. Highest concentrations were observed when temperatures were greater. In general, concentrations were greater at Moody Brook than at Halley, although the difference in concentrations between sites was less for more chlorinated congeners. Air concentrations at both sites were compared with samples collected nearby over-water. Over water air concentrations were found to be greater than over land air concentrations. Concentrations were also compared with literature data for air concentrations at a remote site in the Canadian Arctic. Atmospheric concentrations of tri-chlorinated biphenyls were found to be approximately double those reported for Ellesmere Island in the Canadian Arctic, whilst concentrations in samples from Antarctica were very similar to those found in the high Arctic. Most other PCBs were a factor of 2-4 greater in the Canadian Arctic.     

Modeling the influence of climate change on the mass balance of polychlorinated biphenyls in the Adriatic Sea

Climate forcing is forecasted to influence the Adriatic Sea region in a variety of ways, including increasing temperature, and affecting wind speeds, marine currents, precipitation and water salinity. The Adriatic Sea is intensively developed with agriculture, industry, and port activities that introduce pollutants to the environment. Here, we developed and applied a Level III fugacity model for the Adriatic Sea to estimate the current mass balance of polychlorinated biphenyls in the Sea, and to examine the effects of a climate change scenario on the distribution of these pollutants. The model’s performance was evaluated for three PCB congeners against measured concentrations in the region using environmental parameters estimated from the 20th century climate scenario described in the Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES) by the IPCC, and using Monte Carlo uncertainty analysis. We find that modeled fugacities of PCBs in air, water and sediment of the Adriatic are in good agreement with observations. The model indicates that PCBs in the Adriatic Sea are closely coupled with the atmosphere, which acts as a net source to the water column. We used model experiments to assess the influence of changes in temperature, wind speed, precipitation, marine currents, particulate organic carbon and air inflow concentrations forecast in the IPCC A1B climate change scenario on the mass balance of PCBs in the Sea. Assuming an identical PCBs’ emission profile (e.g. use pattern, treatment/disposal of stockpiles, mode of entry), modeled fugacities of PCBs in the Adriatic Sea under the A1B climate scenario are higher because higher temperatures reduce the fugacity capacity of air, water and sediments, and because diffusive sources to the air are stronger.     

Simultaneous quantification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in Mississippi river water, in New Orleans, Louisiana, USA

An effective analytical method for simultaneously determining 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 28 polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs), and 12 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) has been developed to measure their concentrations in the Mississippi river waters in New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. The method involves the simultaneous extraction of the selected PAHs, PCBs, and PPCPs, from the aqueous phase by solid phase extraction using two-layer disks consisting of C(18) and SDB-XC, and collection of suspended solid in water samples by 0.2-0.6 microm filter in a single step. Target compounds adsorbed on the extraction disks were eluted with methanol, acetone, and dichloromethane. The suspended particles retained by the filter were sonically extracted using the same solvents. GC/MS was used for quantification of PAHs and PCBs directly and of PPCPs after derivatization. The analytical method was used in a 6-month field study of the Mississippi river water for contamination by PAHs, PCBs, and PPCPs and the following concentrations (ng/l) have been obtained: clofibric acid (3.2-26.7), ibuprofen (0-34.0), acetaminophen (24.7-65.2), caffeine (0-38.0), naproxen (0-135.2), triclosan (8.8-26.3), bisphenol A (0-147.2), carbamazepine (42.9-113.7), estrone (0-4.7), 17beta-estradiol (0-4.5), total PAHs (62.9-144.7), and total PCBs (22.2-163.4).     

Novel polymer monolith microextraction using a poly-(methyl methacrylate-co-ethylene dimethacrylate) monolith and its application to the determination of polychlorinated biphenyls in water samples

A novel and simple method based on polymer monolith microextraction (PMME) coupled to gas chromatography with electron-capture detection (GC-ECD) was developed for the determination of six polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) residues in water samples. The proposed method used poly-(methyl methacrylate-co-ethylene dimethacrylate) (MMA-co-EDMA) monolith as extraction media. Several factors affecting experiments such as sample flow rate, sample volume, the type of eluent, eluent volume, eluent flow rate, effect of salt addition and carry over effect were investigated and optimized systematically. The limits of detection (LODs) for six PCBs were 0.028-0.043 ng mL⁻¹ in water samples. The intra-day and inter-day precisions (R.S.D.) were less than 9.2% and 9.6%, respectively. The proposed method was successfully applied to the determination of six PCBs in tap water, lake water and industrial waste water and the trueness has been evaluated by recovery experiments. The obtained relative recoveries were in the range of 63.3-105.6%.     

Human intake of PCDDs, PCDFs, and dioxin like PCBs in Japan, 2001 and 2002

PCDDs, PCDFs, and dioxin like PCBs (dioxin) surveillance results derived from regular environmental monitoring as well as other dioxin surveys by national and local governmental bodies in Japan were collected and analyzed. Several thousand data for air and soil in fiscal year 2001 (from 01/04/2001 to 31/03/2002) and 2002, water (from the sea, rivers and lakes), sediment (from the sea, rivers and lakes), ground water, aquatic organisms, purified water from water purification plants, raw water from water purification plants, human breast milk, and human blood in fiscal 2001, and total diet study (TDS) and various kinds of foodstuff in fiscal 1998-2002 were collected. Average human uptake of dioxin in Japan in fiscal 2001 was estimated at 1.68 pg-TEQ/kg-bw/day, while uptake in fiscal 2002 was estimated at 1.52 pg-TEQ/kg-bw/day. Diet accounted for more than 90% of the total intake. Contributions of inhalation and soil ingestion were relatively small. Age-group-specific contribution of various foodstuff to total dietary intake was also estimated. The estimates of intake through fish and shellfish accounted for approximately 45-70% of total dietary intake in each age group. Monte Carlo simulation was conducted, using the data of the air and soil concentrations in fiscal 2001 and the total diet study data in fiscal 1998-2001, in order to obtain information on the variability of dioxin intake; The estimated average, median, 5th percentile and 95th percentile of the intake distribution were 1.78, 1.69, 0.95 and 2.91 pg-TEQ/kg-bw/day, respectively. This study found that the average total intake estimates in Japan in both fiscal 2001 and 2002 were estimated to be below tolerable daily intake level (TDI) defined by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Japan (i.e. 4 pg-TEQ/kg-bw/day). The 95th percentile of the dioxin intake distributions estimated with Monte Carlo simulation using the data of the air and soil concentrations in fiscal 2001 and TDS data in fiscal 1998-2001 was also below the Japanese TDI.