Urban sprawl,public transport,and increasing CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> emissions: the case of Metro Manila,Philippines

Current international discussions on the increasingly critical levels of carbon emissions from the transportation sector commonly attribute the causality chain to urban sprawl growth–private car use–carbon emission. An often assumed development context of this causality chain is that common of developed country urbanization. However, in the particular context of developing country urbanization, urban sprawl and associated workplace–home distanciation may lead to more intensive use by the urban workforce of public mass transportation system, instead of higher dependence on private vehicle travel. Thus, the source of the rise in carbon emission may actually be the public transportation system. Utilizing mixed methods, combining quantitative (origin–destination matrices) and qualitative data gathering and analysis, the authors present a case study in Metro Manila which has been experiencing sprawl and increasing costs and unaffordability of land and housing in the workforce’s vicinity of employment. This, in turn, causes greater distances of daily travel between home and workplace using public transportation system. When the latter is characterized by fuel-inefficient small vehicles with second-hand engines, higher carbon emission results. We argue that the convergence of multiple interacting factors such as urban sprawl, lack of affordability of housing near the centres of employment, high dependence of commuters on public transports, longer distance travel by commuters, and low fuel efficiency of the public utility vehicles primarily causes the increase in CO₂ emission from the transport sector. Implications of this case to policy scoping of immediate and long-term state responses for carbon emission mitigation in transportation sector are discussed.     

The diet of Asian badger, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Meles leucurus</Emphasis> Hodgson, 1847, in Samarovskii Chugas Nature Park,Western Siberia

The diet structure of Asian badgers (Meles leucurus Hodgson, 1847) on Bol’shoi Chukhtinskii Island (Samarovskii Chugas Nature Park, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Area) was studied by means of coprological analysis. Ten diet components were identified, including Siberian stone pine seeds (pine nuts), berries, earthworms, larval and adult insects, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. The proportion of pine nuts was especially large. Seasonal fluctuations in the occurrence frequency and abundance of different foods were insignificant, but some of them were found to markedly vary between years.     

Cs,Pu and Am in bottom sediments and surface water of Lake Päijänne,Finland

The concentrations and vertical distribution of ^239,240Pu, ²⁴¹Am and ¹³⁷Cs in the bottom sediments and water samples of Lake Päijänne were investigated. This lake is important, since the Päijänne area received a significant deposition from the Chernobyl fallout. Furthermore Lake Päijänne is the raw water source for the Helsinki metropolitan area. In addition no previous data on the distribution of plutonium and americium in the sediment profiles of Lake Päijänne exist. Only data covering the surface layer (0–1 cm) of the sediments are previously available. In the sediments the average total activities were 45 ± 15 Bq/m² and 20 ± 7 Bq/m² for ^239,240Pu and ²⁴¹Am, respectively. The average ²⁴¹Am/^239,240Pu ratio was 0.45 ± 0.14. The ²⁴¹Am/^239,240Pu ratio is lowest in the surface layer of the sediments and increases as a function of depth. The ²³⁸Pu/^239,240Pu ratio of the sediment samples varied between 0.012 ± 0.025 and 0.162 ± 0.079, decreasing as a function of depth. The average activity in water was 4.9 ± 0.9 mBq/m³ and 4.1 ± 0.2 mBq/m³ for ^239,240Pu and ²⁴¹Am, respectively. The ²⁴¹Am/^239,240Pu ratio of water samples was 0.82 ± 0.17. ^239,240Pu originating from the Chernobyl fallout calculated from the average total activities covers approximately 1.95 ± 0.01% of the total ^239,240Pu activity in the bottom sediments. The average total ¹³⁷Cs activity of sediment profiles was 100 ± 15 kBq/m² and 19.3 ± 1.4 Bq/m³ in water samples.     

Ecological and genetic characteristics of the distribution of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bradybaena fruticum</Emphasis> Mull. (mollusca,gastropoda, pulmonata) in a forest-steppe landscape

The distribution pattern of the gastropod Bradybaena fruticum has been studied in a forest-steppe landscape. Analysis of the frequencies of polymorphic biochemical and conchological characters has yielded preliminary results on the characteristics of the species population structure whose formation was determined by a set of natural and anthropogenic factors.Translated from Ekologiya, No. 1, 2005, pp. 39–47.Original Russian Text Copyright © 2005 by Snegin.     

The gyrfalcon, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Falco rusticolus</Emphasis>, in the Yamal Peninsula: Dynamics of brood size and nest size over the years 1973–2008

The gyrfalcon in the Yamal Peninsula nests mostly on trees. The average brood size in this species decreased from 3.1 nestlings per active nest (n = 28) between 1973 and 1989 to 2.2 (n = 22) between 1998 and 2008. This decrease is probably explained by switching to the habit of using mostly smaller nests (built by the rough-legged buzzard, raven, or hooded crow) instead of large nests built by the white-tailed eagle. The survival rate of gyrfalcon nestlings in smaller nests is considerably lower: the average brood size is only 1.6 (n = 12), compared to 2.5 (n = 20) in medium-sized and 3.0 (n = 34) in large nests. The possible role of increase in snow cover density caused by climate warming in making large nests less accessible to the gyrfalcon is discussed.     

Habitat selection of Asiatic toad, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bufo gargarizans</Emphasis> (Cantor, 1842), in southwestern China

We studied feeding and shelter site selection by an Asiatic toad(Bufo gargarizans) from March to November 2006 in southwestern China. Toads emerged to select significantly more often bare surfaces or low vegetable as feeding sites at night. Toads used daily shelters similar to those described for other terrestrial amphibians, but vegetable cover was a crucial factor for their shelter selection in lacking rock crevices and hollow trees. At the same time, our results showed surficial temperatures greatly influenced feeding activity of toads.     

Ecophysiology of Steppe Mouse Subspecies <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mus spicilegius spicilegus</Emphasis>, Peteni, 1883 (Rodentia,Mammalia) at the South Boundary of its Distribution

Diet, food preferences and main ecophysiological characteristics such like energy requirements and thermoregulation characteristics of Mus spicilegus spicilegus (Petenyi, 1882) were studied. The most preferred foods for the mice were seeds of weed species that composed more than 85% of their diet. The results of food selection experiments shows that the total daily consumption by mice is 2.77 ± 0.76 g/animal/day or 5.5 kJ/g/day or 84.9 kJ/animal/day. From the total daily energy consumption 16.4% go back to nature in the form of feces and urine and the rest 83.6% animals utilized for assimilation. The results of the temperature preferences for Mus s. spicilegus shows preferred temperature zone from around 26 to 36°C where mice spent about 72% of the experimental time. The lowest value of oxygen consumption for resting metabolism rate (RMR) was registered at 30°C–3.20 ± 0.71 cm³ O₂/g/h. It is possible to consider that the thermoneutral zone is around these temperature values. The obtained results give reason to conclude that from an ecophysiologycal point of view the climate in the south boundary of distribution provides optimal conditions for species development. The main cause for population decreasing probably is the loss of open habitats including natural steppe grasslands.     

Biotesting of water from Peter the Great Bay,Sea of Japan,using the microalga <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dunaliella salina</Emphasis>

Water samples from zones with different levels of anthropogenic pollution in Peter the Great Bay, the Sea of Japan, were subjected to biotesting on the microalga Dunaliella salina. A distinct inhibitory effect on microalgal cultures was revealed in tests of water from Amur Bay. Water samples from stations in the Tumannaya River mouth and off Frugelm Island (in the southwestern part of Peter the Great Bay) and from Gaidamak Bight (Vostok Bay) had little effect on D. salina growth.     

Species richness,structure, and conservation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nitraria retusa</Emphasis> communities in the coastal salt marshes of Kuwait

Although the coastal salt marshes of Arabian Gulf have been altered extensively by human development activities, there is a paucity of data describing changes in the distribution and abundance of native coastal plant communities. The main objectives of this study are to determine vegetation condition, size structure, and conservation status of Nitraria retusa, a medicinal and salt-tolerant shrub, in disturbed and non-disturbed coastal salt marshes of Kuwait. Size measurements of Nitraria shrubs and nabkas, which are mounds of sediment developed around shrubs, were carried out in 50 quadrats (20 × 20 m²), randomly selected inside and outside Sabah Al-Ahmad Natural Reserve. Species richness and soil properties of nabkas and interspaces, the open areas between the nabkas, were also measured. The results revealed that nabkas of Nitraria in non-disturbed sites are more stable and rich in plant diversity than those in disturbed sites. Mean height and mean canopy diameter of Nitraria shrubs, total plant cover, and species richness are significantly higher in non-disturbed sites than disturbed sites, which indicate the positive influences of conservation for long term on vegetation structure and species richness. The results of soil analyses indicate the important role of nabkas in providing refuges for plant life and species diversity. The present study indicates that more than 50 % of the N. retusa community has been lost during the last few decades. Therefore, N. retusa should be considered an endangered species in Kuwait. The reduction in vegetation cover, a decline in species richness, and the overall degradation of salt marshes are attributed to human development activities along the coast of Kuwait. Effective conservation actions for threatened species in degraded coastal salt marshes of this region include establishment of protective enclosures, prohibitions on development that adversely affects native plant communities, and the planting native salt-tolerant shrubs to facilitate regeneration.     

Interpreting soil CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> transport and production in oasis cotton field,central Asia

In order to explore soil profile CO₂ transport and production, values of vertical soil profile CO₂ concentration, moisture and temperature were measured continuously during whole cotton growing season in oasis cotton field of Aksu National Experimental Station of Oasis Farmland Ecosystem, central Asia. Simultaneously, soil CO₂ efflux was measured by chamber system to assess the deducing result by Fick’s first law. In our experiment, soil CO₂ effluxes were determined by two related intimately methods. Soil CO₂ releasing at 0–20 cm depth was calculated by gas transport equation and was found to be closely related to soil CO₂ efflux. However, mean values of soil CO₂ production at 0–20 cm depth were less than those of soil CO₂ efflux during the whole cotton growing season. Moreover, there were some negative values of CO₂ production at 0–20 cm depth found during the experimental period.     

Influence of silts on the growth,reproduction and chlorophyll fluorescence of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Potamogeton crispus</Emphasis> in turbid water

Turions of Potamogeton crispus were planted in several turbid waters. Some parameters of growth, reproduction and chlorophyll fluorescence were measured. The results were as follows: (1) Sprouting rates in all groups reached to 100.0% on the 17^th day. (2) The parameters of the growth (stem and leaf) and chlorophyll fluorescence (Φ_PSII, qP and qN) in 120 and 150NTU waters were inhibited heavily 60 days later, and their survival time was only 140 days. However, the plants in 30 to 90NTU waters could grow near water surface, their survival time was about 190 days. (3) After 150 days, the saturating irradiance intensity and rETR_max of the leaves in 30 to 90NTU waters markedly decreased with an increase in the amount of attached silts, and the number and fresh mass of turions (propagula) in 60 and 90NTU waters were significantly lower than the control. In summary, P. crispus in 0.7-metre-deep turbid water with suspended silts (not more than 90NTU) could sprout and grow normally, and produce the turions.     

Age,Survivorship and Life Expectancy in Near Eastern Fire Salamander, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Salamandra infraimmaculata</Emphasis> (Caudata: Salamandridae)

Populations from different environmental habitats indicate variation in life history traits and these differences are mostly related to longevity, age and size at maturity. In this study, age structure, longevity, survivorship and sexual size dimorphism of Near Eastern fire salamander (Salamandra infraimmaculata) were assessed by means of skeletochronological analysis. Maximum lifespan was recorded to be twelve years in females and eleven years in males and age at maturity was estimated as three and four years for both sexes. Females had significantly larger SVL than that of males, while age structure and mean age did not differ between sexes. Age and body size were positively correlated with each other for both females and males. Since the populations of the Near Eastern fire salamander in Turkey are in decline, the present study which provides preliminary data on life history traits of this species could be helpful for future biological studies.