Pelagic Sargassum community change over a 40-year period: temporal and spatial variability

Pelagic forms of the brown algae (Phaeophyceae) Sargassum spp. and their conspicuous rafts are defining characteristics of the Sargasso Sea in the western North Atlantic. Given rising temperatures and acidity in the surface ocean, we hypothesized that macrofauna associated with Sargassum in the Sargasso Sea have changed with respect to species composition, diversity, evenness, and sessile epibiota coverage since studies were conducted 40 years ago. Sargassum communities were sampled along a transect through the Sargasso Sea in 2011 and 2012 and compared to samples collected in the Sargasso Sea, Gulf Stream, and south of the subtropical convergence zone from 1966 to 1975. Mobile macrofauna communities exhibited changes in community structure and declines in diversity and evenness within a 6-month time period (August 2011–February 2012). Equivalent declines in diversity and evenness were recorded in the same region (Sargasso Sea, 25°–29°N) in 1972–1973. Recent community structures were unlike any documented historically, whether compared to sites of the same latitude range within the Sargasso Sea, or the broader historical dataset of sites ranging across the Sargasso Sea, Gulf Stream, and south of the subtropical convergence zone. Recent samples also recorded low coverage by sessile epibionts, both calcifying forms and hydroids. The diversity and species composition of macrofauna communities associated with Sargassum might be inherently unstable. While several biological and oceanographic factors might have contributed to these observations, including a decline in pH, increase in summer temperatures, and changes in the abundance and distribution of Sargassum seaweed in the area, it is not currently possible to attribute direct causal links.     

Faunal variation on pelagic Sargassum

Pelagic Sargassum was collected in late summer, late winter, and early and late spring from inshore waters, the Gulf Stream and the Sargasso Sea of the Western North Atlantic Ocean. The noncolonial macrofauna was picked from the weed samples. The 34 samples contained 67 species and 11,234 individuals. The Shannon-Wiener index of diversity had a mean value of 2.419±0.177 (t.₀₅s _x ^– ) and a statistical range between 1.401 and 3.437 (t.₀₅ s). Mean diversity values were not significantly different among the various sampling series, and diversity did not vary with raft volume. High diversity values were related to an equitable distribution of species resulting from a stable environment and an area low in productivity. Species composition of the Sargassum organisms varied seasonally and geographically. Animals were more abundant in the spring than in the fall samples. Samples collected on a transect in the Gulf Stream and Sargasso Sea maintained a similar faunal composition.Contribution No. 351 from the Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Virginia, USA.From a thesis submitted to the faculty of the School of Marine Science, The College of William and Mary, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Marine Science.     

Morphologie,Entwicklung und Ökologie digener Trematoden-Larven der StrandschneckeLittorina littorea

More than 6000 individuals of the snailLittorina littorea L., from 6 different localities on the coast of the German Bay (North Sea), were examined for larval trematodes by crushing their shells, an additional 6000 by isolation in small quantities of sea water. Six species of larval trematodes were found inL. littorea and described: Notocotylid larva —Cercaria lebouri Stunkard, 1932; Cercaria ofHimasthla elongata (Mehlis, 1831); Cercaria ofPodocotyle atomon (Rudolphi, 1802); Cercaria ofRenicola roscovita (Stunkard, 1932) n. comb.; Metacercaria ofMicrophallus pygmaeus (Levinsen, 1881); Cercaria ofCryptocotyle lingua (Creplin, 1825). Considering the large number of investigated snails, the trematode fauna ofL. littorea in this area is assumed to be completely known. The life cycles ofHimasthla elongata andRenicola roscovita are described. Larvae of the different trematode species show differential preferences for distinct size groups of snail hosts. Juvenile snails are not infected. No correlation exists between infection rates and sex of the hosts. Quantitative aspects of multiple infections are calculated and discussed. The incidence of larval trematodes in the investigated localities differs. Information is presented on seasonal variations of infestations and their possible causes.     

Morphology,nutrition and taxonomy of an Aplanochytrium sp. from the Sargasso Sea

Aplanochytrium sp. 2400/57 was isolated from samples of sargasso weed collected in the Sargasso Sea on April 4, 1979. The monocentric eucarpic thallus of this organism produced aplanospores by successive bipartitioning. The cell wall contained only 20% polysaccharide, composed of fucose, galactose, xylose, glucose, and galacturonic acid. The guanine+cytosine content of the DNA (mol% G+C) was 37.6%. L-isoleucine, L-leucine, and L-proline were utilized as nitrogen sources in synthetic media of defined composition.     

Use of seaweeds for monitoring trace elements in coastal waters

Concentrations of a wide range of trace elements: arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, hafnium, nickel, thorium, uranium, zinc and the rare earth elements, cerium, europium, samarium, terbium and ytterbium were determined by instrumental neutron activation analysis in the brown alga,Fucus vesiculosus from Eckwarder Hörne, North Sea and from Rügen, Baltic Sea. Another brown alga,Sargassum filipendula from Sri Lanka, Indian ocean (representing an unpolluted control station) was similarly investigated. Cobalt, chromium and nickel concentrations were highest inF. vesiculosus from the North Sea while zinc was highest in samples from the Baltic Sea, reflecting high levels of these elements in coastal waters of the North and the Baltic sea. Cadmium, cobalt, nickel and zinc levels were lowest inS. filipendula from Sri Lanka, probably demonstrating lower levels of those elements in coastal waters. Concentration levels of hafnium, thorium, uranium, and the rare earth elements were highest inS. filipendula. Two years later in 1994,S. filipendula along withUlva sp. (green alga) was resampled from the same sampling site, and in addition to the above elements, six other trace elements (Ag, Ba, Br, Rb, Se and Sr) were determined.Sargassium filipendula showed a particular affinity for Ag, As, Br and Sr. For the other elements, marginal concentration differences were observed betweenS. filipendula andUlva sp., probably reflecting the regional background levels. Substantially higher concentrations of Hf, Th, U, and the rare earths were found again in the 1994Sargassum andUlva samples, reflecting the effect of a substrate rich in rare earth elements. The brown algae used in this study may be used to monitor trace elements in coastal waters.     

Isolation and identification of fungi tolerant to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and coal tar from different habitats in Lithuania

A group of 36 fungal strains, belonging to the Lithuanian mycobiota, was collected and isolated from different locations, habitats, and matrices, including creosote-treated wood in storage yards for crosstie wastes. The eight most perspective strains selected according to preliminary assessment of tolerance to coal tar were subsequently identified combining taxonomical evaluation and molecular techniques. The tolerance of the eight identified fungal species (five basidiomycetes and three ascomycetes) to the presence of various concentrations of coal tar, and for the four most perspective fungal strains (Pleurotus sp., Schizophyllum sp., Irpex lacteus, Bjerkandera adusta) to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons was evaluated. The ligninolytic enzymatic activity assay of the isolated strains resulted in a good correspondence between the tolerance to pollutants and the capability to produce ligninolytic enzymes indicating that this group of white-rot fungi is perspective for further investigation and eventual usage for mycoremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons polluted substrates.     

Factors influencing the gas composition in the vesicles of Sargassum

The composition of gas in the vesicles of Sargassum cf. leptopodum Sonder has been investigated. The oxygen content depends upon the oxygen partial pressure of the surrounding medium. It does not depend upon the photosynthetic activity of the vesicle. Evidence is provided that the lower limit of the vertical distribution zone of Sargassum cf. leptopodum Sonder is not controlled by the vesicles' capability of resisting hydrostatic pressure.     

Sexual reproduction and settlement of the coral reef spongeChalinula sp. from the Red Sea

Characteristics of the sexual reproduction and larval settlement of the haplosclerid spongeChalinula sp., which inhabits the shallow waters (1 to 6 m) of Eilat, Red Sea, were investigated from September 1985 through to November 1987. This species was found to be a simultaneous hermaphroditic brooder, hence gonochorism is not the rule in the order Haplosclerida. Brooding always takes place in special brooding chambers. While the oocytes in the brooding chambers are among the largest known in sponges (355±37µm), the spermatic cysts distributed in the choanosome are among the smallest known for this phylum (average 26±7µm).Chalinula sp. breeds throughout the year and in experiments most larvae (74%) settled within 1 to 8 h post-release, generally within 4.5 h. Metamorphosis from larval shape to a sessile sponge lasts 1 to 6 h. Thus, larvae had a short swimming period, settled fast, and metamorphosed rapidly (within 1 to 6 h). The large size of the larvae may contribute to their ability to rapidly reorganize their body shape into that of a sessile sponge. In addition, the existence of already differentiated choanocyte chambers in the larvae, facilitates fast construction of the water filtration system in the newly settled sponges. The reproductive and larval characteristics ofChalinula sp. enable the larvae to settle on any vacant space in the reef, which may explain its abundance in the Red Sea.     

The phytal animals on the thalli of Sargassum serratifolium in the Sargassum region,with reference to their seasonal fluctuations

In the Sargassum region on the coast of Mukaishima, in the Inland Sea of Japan, the phytal animals living on Sargassum serratifolium, and the alga itself as a habitat for phytal animals, were studied from August, 1966 to August, 1968. The standing crop of Sargassum/m² bottom was 4.93 kg/m² (March, 1967) and 3.53 kg/m² (February, 1968) in the most luxuriant season, and 0.4 to 0.5 kg/m² (July, 1967 and 1968) in the off-season. The individual number of phytal animals per mean plant, without sessile fauna, reached a maximum in late winter and early spring (about 130,000 in 1967, 266,000 in 1968) when Sargassum was luxuriant, and a minimum in summer (about 15,000 in both years) when Sargassum was declining. Among the phytal animals, benthonic copepods (Harpacticoida) were very abundant in most seasons. Their dominance decreased in spring, whilst nematode dominance increased. It appears that such seasonal changes are closely related to the standing crop of S. serratifolium. Fluctuations in numbers of most groups of the meiofauna of phytal animals, such as foraminiferans, ostracods, isopods, amphipods, copepods, tanaids and nematodes, are connected with changes in the standing Sargassum crop. Seasonal fluctuations of some groups, such as echinoderms, actinians, mysids and decapod crustaceans (macrofauna), were, however, independent of Sargassum crop variations. The individual number of phytal animals/m² bottom in the Sargassum region were compared with findings of previous studies in other habitats, such as naked sandy and mud bottoms.Contribution No. 100 from the Mukaishima Marine Biological Station.     

Dispersal of phytoplanktotrophic shipworm larvae (Bivalvia: Teredinidae) over long distances by ocean currents

Shipworms or Teredinidae may be dispersed either as adults in floating wooden objects or as pelagic larvae drifting near the sea surface. Five shipworm species, i.e., half of those having an amphi-Atlantic geographical distribution, are known also to have pelagic phytoplanktotrophic larvae which can be carried by ocean currents. From a series of 742 plankton samples taken from throughout the temperate and tropical North Atlantic Ocean, it can be shown that shipworm larvae are not uncommon in the open sea. Teredinid veligers were found in 19% of all samples taken. One species of larvae, identical in all details to that described by Rancurel (1965), is particularly prevalent and is tentatively identified as Teredora malleolus (Turton). A definitive identification will be possible only after the pelagic larvae of the other Atlantic species are known. The larvae of Teredora malleolus are found throughout the North Atlantic Gyre and the adjacent temperate and tropical seas, and from scattered records in the South Equatorial Current. Larvae of other unidentified Teredinidae species were also found. The distance that larvae may be transported depends upon the length of pelagic larval development and the velocity of the currents. From the known current velocities it can be shown that, even in a few weeks, larvae may be dispersed many hundreds of kilometers. The geographical distribution of shipworm larvae suggests that they are carried along the coasts of continents and even across ocean basins, and that this dispersal must be an important factor in the geographical distribution of the adult forms and in the maintenance of genetic continuity between populations otherwise isolated from one another.Contribution No. 2555 from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, USA     

In situ pumping activities of tropical Demospongiae

Studies employing Scuba techniques were carried out on populations of 3 species of tropical demosponges to determine in situ patterns of water-pumping activity. Short-term changes in individual activity of deep-water species (15 to 55 m) were determined from continuous recordings of exhalant current velocities. Long-term changes were determined by repeated measurements of oscular velocity and oscular area. Mycale sp. was found to maintain constant levels of pumping activity in both short and long-term studies. Verongia gigantea underwent periodic cessations of activity averaging 42 min, at random intervals of approximately 19 h. Cessations were asynchronous throughout the population and inherent in origin. Long-term activity variations appeared to be cyclic, but were explainable by environmental events. Shallow-water populations of Tethya crypta exhibited a synchronized diurnal cycle of contraction and dilation, probably tied to the diurnal cycle of illumination. A longer term (average 15.8 days) cycle of activity-inactivity, also involving contraction and dilation, was asynchronous throughout the population during the calm season. Each individual maintained a fairly uniform cyclic period ranging from 9 to 21 days. Changes of T. crypta activity were probably due to changes in flagellar activity. With the onset of the stormy season, the activity of all members of the population was brought into synchrony by the effects of approximately biweekly storms. The behavior of Verongia archeri, Agelas sp., and other species indicates that constant activity (e.g. Mycale sp.) may be restricted to thin-walled species working at low pressures and velocities. Activity patterns are consistent within species, but variable in higher taxa. Behavioral activity patterns of sponges must be taken into account in ecological and physiological studies of these animals.     

Contrasting feeding patterns among species of fish larvae from the tropical Andaman Sea

Feeding habits of tropical fish larvae were analysed in a comparative study of four species (Scorpaenodes sp., Carangoides sp., Acanthocepola sp. and Cynoglossus sp.) from the Andaman Sea. We investigated morphological characteristics and their potential influence on larval feeding, and looked for common patterns in larval prey preference. Gut contents of a total of 300 larvae were examined and compared with local zooplankton composition. The feeding habits of the investigated larvae shared a number of characteristics. During ontogeny both the preferred prey size and the number of prey in the gut increased, and across all larval size classes the relative prey size spectrum stayed constant, of approximately the same magnitude for all four species. On the other hand, larval feeding also differed in a number of aspects, especially differences in the taxonomic composition of preferred prey were apparent. Scorpaenodes sp. preferred abundant and large prey taxa, Acanthocepola sp. and Carangoides sp. preferred large, but less common prey taxa, while Cynoglossus sp., which had the relatively smallest mouth size, preferred smaller sized prey groups. Hence, the findings indicate that from an offset of common characteristics, especially related to prey size preference, larvae have their individual feeding patterns related to specific morphology and patterns of distribution.Communicated by M. Kühl, Helsingør     

Differing patterns of sequestration of iridoid glycosides in the Mecininae (Coleoptera, Curculionidae)

We analyzed several species of the weevil family Mecininae (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) that all feed on iridoid glycoside (IG) containing plants of the Plantaginaceae to investigate whether the beetles sequester these deterrent substances from their host plants. Within the Mecininae two genera of the tribe Cionini were found to sequester aucubin and catalpol: Cionus Clairville and Schellenberg and Cleopus Dejean. Both analyzed genera of the Mecinini, Mecinus Germar and Rhinusa Stephens, do not sequester IGs although the compounds are present in their food plants. They thus represent the first case of specialists on IG plants that have not evolved adaptations to use the compounds. However, in contrast to the Cionini these genera have a hidden lifestyle, so that their need for defence might be lower. Both Cionus and Cleopus, sequester catalpol with a higher efficiency than aucubin. However, in contrast to Cionus species, Cleopus species only sequester catalpol. In species feeding on Scrophularia, the aucubin concentration is higher while in beetles on Verbascum catalpol is usually dominating. This pattern can also be detected in the only species living on both plants, Cionus hortulanus. The ability to sequester IGs must have a single origin at the base of the sister genera Cionus and Cleopus.     

Effects of herbivory on zonation of Sargassum spp. within fringing reefs of the central Great Barrier Reef

A combination of small-scale transplants and herbivore exclusion was used to test the importance of herbivory, physiological tolerance limits, and recruitment and dispersal in regulating the distribution and abundance of the genus Sargassum on two nearshore fringing reefs of the central Great Barrier Reef, during 1992/1993. Sargassum (predominantly S. oligocystum and S. tenerrimum) were transplanted from reef-flat zones where they normally grow, to a seaward coral zone where they are not normally found. At Great Palm Island, coral-zone transplants only survived if protected from herbivores. At Brook Island, survival of uncaged coral-zone transplants was more variable but not significantly lower than plants returned to the Sargassum zone. Thus herbivory may be a major cause of the zonation patterns of adult Sargassum on these fringing reefs, but the importance of this factor varies between and within reefs. Since protected Sargassum survived and grew for up to 6 mo in the coral zone, the adult algae are not physiologically limited by any physical or chemical differences between zones. However, Sargassum recruitment to the coral zone was very low (mean 2.7 recruits m⁻² over 13 mo), and was not significantly affected by herbivores. Since rates of herbivory were relatively slow, effective exclusion of Sargassum from the coral zone by herbivores may depend on low recruitment of the algae. In a broader context, the distribution of Sargassum may depend on the combined spatial patterns of herbivory and recruitment. Received: 24 January 1997 / Accepted: 12 May 1997     

Arsenic detoxification potential of <Emphasis Type="Italic">aox</Emphasis> genes in arsenite-oxidizing bacteria isolated from natural and constructed wetlands in the Republic of Korea

Arsenic is subject to microbial interactions, which support a wide range of biogeochemical transformations of elements in natural environments such as wetlands. The arsenic detoxification potential of the bacterial strains was investigated with the arsenite oxidation gene, aox genotype, which were isolated from the natural and constructed wetlands. The isolates were able to grow in the presence of 10 mM of sodium arsenite (As(III) as NaAsO₂) and 1 mM of d+glucose. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing indicated that these isolated strains resembled members of the genus that have arsenic-resistant systems (Acinetobacter sp., Aeromonas sp., Agrobacterium sp., Comamonas sp., Enterobacter sp., Pantoea sp., and Pseudomonas sp.) with sequence similarities of 81–98%. One bacterial isolate identified as Pseudomonas stutzeri strain GIST-BDan2 (EF429003) showed the activity of arsenite oxidation and existence of aoxB and aoxR gene, which could play an important role in arsenite oxidation to arsenate. This reaction may be considered as arsenic detoxification process. The results of a batch test showed that P. stutzeri GIST-BDan2 (EF429003) completely oxidized in 1 mM of As(III) to As(V) within 25–30 h. In this study, microbial activity was evaluated to provide a better understanding of arsenic biogeochemical cycle in both natural and constructed wetlands, where ecological niches for microorganisms could be different, with a specific focus on arsenic oxidation/reduction and detoxification.     

Carotenoids in the hermit crab Clibanarius misanthropus (Crustacea,Paguridae) from the Black Sea

The authors investigated the carotenoids in the hermit crab, Clibanarius misanthropus (Risso), from the Black Sea. By means of columnar and thin-layer chromatography the following carotenoids were found to be present in that species; -carotene, canthaxanthin, lutein, astaxanthin and some kind of polioxyxanthophill.     

Distribution of overwintering calanoid copepod eggs in sea-bed sediments around southern Britain

Eggs of the calanoid copepodsLabidocera wollastoni (Lubbock) andCentropages hamatus (Lilljeborg) and others, which could not be reliably assigned to species, were identified from sediment samples taken during three cruises in December 1984, January 1986, and February 1987 in the southern North Sea, the English Channel, the Irish Sea and the Celtic Sea. Eggs were most abundant in sediment samples taken between 20 and 80 m depth, with bottom stress less than 10 dyn cm^–2, and near to the positions of tidal fronts. It is suggested that sedimentation, resuspension and sediment transport contribute to the causes of these distributions, which have been found to be consistent with the distributions of species which are known to produce diapause eggs as an overwintering strategy. Nauplii ofL. wollastoni, C. hamatus, C. typicus (Krøyer)Temora longicornis (Müller) andAcartia sp. hatched from incubated sediment samples. The last noted hatchings ofL. wollastoni, Centropages spp. andT. longicornis all occurred more than 1 yr after the start of the incubation experiments.     

Are there physiological races of the sea anemone Diadumene luciae?

The chemical activators of feeding behaviour for coelenterates have been generally regarded as species specific. Recently, however, and English (North Sea) population of the sea anemone Diadumene (Haliplanella) luciae (Verrill) and an American (Californian) population of the same species were found to respond to different chemical activators. The results of further examination of this apparent anomaly show that a third population (from the English Channel, selected because of differences in colour variety and type of habitat from the North Sea population) shared the same activators as the other English population. There was no correlation between the identities of the feeding-behaviour activators and either the type of habitat or coloration of the three populations. Since the only physical factor shared by anemones with similar activators (i.e., the two English populations) was geographical, it is tentatively concluded that physiological races of D. luciae may be evolving, independently of morphological or differently coloured races, in different parts of the world.     

Petroderma and Porterinema in the New World

Two species of crustose brown algae (Ralfsiaceae) are discussed. Petroderma maculiforme is described from several Massachusetts collections and Porterinema fluviatile is described for the first time from North America. The known world-wide distribution of both species is cited, and data are given on their ecology, and vegetative and reproductive periodicities. The wide range of salinities from which plants of these species have been collected indicate that they are both euryhaline. Lithoderma lignicola Kjeliman (1883) is synonymized with Petroderma maculiforme (Wollny) Kuckuck (1897) and Porterinema marina Jaasund (1965) with. P. fluviatile (Porter) Waern (1952).Systematics-Ecology Program Contribution No. 196.     

Distribution of euphausiid assemblages in the Mediterranean Sea

Eleven species of euphausiids from 24 Isaac-Kidd Midwater Trawl (IKMT) night collections taken at stations throughout the Mediterranean Sea were counted. The frequency of occurrence and dominance of individual species and percent similarity faunal analysis of the euphausiid community were used to describe changes in faunal composition between geographical areas and differences in vertical distribution. Although most species were widespread, three distinct patterns of abundance were apparent: Euphausia krohnii, Nematoscelis megalops, Meganyctiphanes norvegica, and Stylocheiron abbreviatum predominated in western basin areas west of the Tyrrhenian Sea; Euphausia hemigibba, Thysanopoda aequalis, and Stylocheiron longicorne predominated in the Tyrrhenian Sea and eastern Mediterranean Sea; Euphausia brevis and Stylocheiron suhmii predominated in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Percent similarity analysis of data from the IKMT samples and data from Ruud (1936) indicates the Tyrrhenian Sea fauna at the time of the collections was more similar to eastern Mediterranean areas than to most other areas in the western basin, although the degree of similarity was dependent, to some extent, on the depth at which the samples were collected. The composition of euphausiids living above 150 m at night in this area was more similar to eastern basin areas, while the composition of deeper living forms was more similar to those of the rest of the western basin. Comparison of euphausiids collected at three points over a 60 year time-span in the Balearic Sea shows the similarity in composition to be greater within the area over time than between adjacent areas in the western Mediterranean Sea.Contribution No. 2732 from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, USA. This research was supported by the Atomic Energy Commission Contract AT (30-1)-3862, ref. NYO-3862-49, National Science Foundation Grant GA 29303 and Office of Naval Research Contract N00014-71-C-0284.