Environmental management in mining and mineral processing in developing countries

This paper analyses some of the social, political and economic dimensions of the environmental behaviour of mining enterprises and governments in the context of evolving regulation, growing public concern and technological innovation. Contrary to the belief that a trade-off exists between production costs and environmental costs, which presupposes a static technology, new generations of technology offer improved economic and environmental efficiency. Technical change is therefore reducing both production and environmental costs. Because most planned mines and available reserves are in developing countries, situations may develop whereby technical change reduces that trade-off for them.     

Stakeholder analysis for natural resource management in developing countries

The purpose of this paper is to share our ideas and experience of developing and applying stakeholder analysis to natural resource management, and to stimulate further development of its concepts and methodologies. Stakeholder analysis emerged in response to the perceived deficiency of conventional economic and social approaches for assessing and designing projects and policies. It is emphasized, however, that it is intended to complement rather than replace existing methods. The paper sets out the principles of stakeholder analysis (SA) and provides indicative guidelines for conducting SA in different situations. SA is an approach and procedure for gaining an understanding of a system by means of identifying the key actors or stakeholders in the system, and assessing their respective economic interests in that system. It is shown to have particular advantages for getting to the heart of many natural resource problems and for understanding the conflicts of interest and trade offs that may threaten the success of a project or policy. The paper discusses the origins of SA, the contexts of its application, how one goes about it, and quotes examples from northern Thailand .     

Electric load management in developing countries

Energy planners in developing countries have traditionally sought to meet their nations' growing electricity demands by adding more generation and transmission capacity. But as the foreign investment situation became critical in the 1980s, private investment and system efficiency improvement programmes began to garner interest. One of the most promising system efficiency improvement options is load management, which uses a variety of techniques to utilize the electricity system's existing capacity more efficiently. However, to date, only three countries have seriously considered implementing large load management programmes: Pakistan, Peru and Costa Rica. This paper describes a 1987-89 load control demonstration programme in Costa Rica, sponsored by the US Agency for International Development (AID), in which participating industries were able to reduce their peak demand by 14%.     

Sustainable forestry management in developing countries

The central message of this paper is that natural forests have multiple uses and multiple users. The paper describes the crisis in Asian forestry and four failures which lie behind the crisis. The first failure is related to economic policy which has consistently underpriced timber, not accounting for the true cost of replacing the felled trees or the value of non-timber goods and services (including environmental services). The second failure stems from the lack of community involvement in managing forests. The third failure is that of forestry institutions which have not been able to adapt to changes required to meet new challenges — away from timber extraction towards environmental services and social forestry. The fourth failure arises from technological constraints, including difficulties in carrying out long-term research (to cover the 20–40 year time horizon in the forestry sector) and ineffective application of research results. A number of specific suggestions for moving toward sustained yield management in Asia are presented. The sustainable management of forests in Asia is crucial not only for indigenous peoples, the environment and economies of the countries of Asia, but also for the biodiversity and health of the global environment.     

Industrial-waste management in developing countries: the case of Lebanon

This paper presents a critical assessment of the existing Lebanese industrial sector, namely the current status and classification of industrial establishments based on a comparative synthesis and analysis of recent nationwide surveys and studies pertaining to industrial-waste management. Characterisation of solid and liquid industrial wastes generated, including hazardous wastes, is presented together with current and projected waste loads, recycling opportunities, and export/import practices. Institutional capacity and needs pertaining to the enforcement of relevant environmental legislation, staffing and resources, monitoring schemes, and public participation are critically evaluated. Finally, realistic options for industrial-waste management in the context of country-specific institutional economic and technical limitations are outlined. The industrial sector in Lebanon consists of small-scale industries (84% employ less than 10 persons), primarily involved in light manufacturing (96%). These industries which are distributed among 41 ill-defined zones and deficient in appropriate physical infrastructure, generate solid, liquid, and hazardous waste estimated at 346,730 tons/year, 20,169,600 m3/year and between 3000 to 15,000 tons/year, respectively. Although the growth of this sector contributes significantly to the socio-economic development of the country (industry accounts for 17% of the gross domestic product), in the absence of a comprehensive environmental management plan, this expansion may not be sustained into the coming millennium. The anticipated expansion will inevitably amplify adverse environmental impacts associated with industrial activities due to rising waste volumes and improper waste handling and disposal practices. These impacts are further aggravated by a deficient institutional framework, a lack of adequate environmental laws, and lax enforcement of regulations governing industrial-waste management.     

Issues in natural resources management in developing countries

Recognizing the steady depletion of natural resources in developing countries, this study analyses its causes by focusing on the ownership of such resources. Resource degradation was found associated with an array of individual, socioeconomic, politicoeconomic and institutional factors. In the pursuit of sustainable regional resources management and conservation, it is necessary to analyse and incorporate these multifarious factors into the design of a comprehensive strategy. While local government should be responsible for devising management strategies, their implementation requires the interfacing of field agencies with local communities that are to be assisted in the short term and instructed in depth; their performance should be closely monitored over the long term.     

Decentralized approaches to wastewater treatment and management: applicability in developing countries

Providing reliable and affordable wastewater treatment in rural areas is a challenge in many parts of the world, particularly in developing countries. The problems and limitations of the centralized approaches for wastewater treatment are progressively surfacing. Centralized wastewater collection and treatment systems are costly to build and operate, especially in areas with low population densities and dispersed households. Developing countries lack both the funding to construct centralized facilities and the technical expertise to manage and operate them. Alternatively, the decentralized approach for wastewater treatment which employs a combination of onsite and/or cluster systems is gaining more attention. Such an approach allows for flexibility in management, and simple as well as complex technologies are available. The decentralized system is not only a long-term solution for small communities but is more reliable and cost effective. This paper presents a review of the various decentralized approaches to wastewater treatment and management. A discussion as to their applicability in developing countries, primarily in rural areas, and challenges faced is emphasized all through the paper. While there are many impediments and challenges towards wastewater management in developing countries, these can be overcome by suitable planning and policy implementation. Understanding the receiving environment is crucial for technology selection and should be accomplished by conducting a comprehensive site evaluation process. Centralized management of the decentralized wastewater treatment systems is essential to ensure they are inspected and maintained regularly. Management strategies should be site specific accounting for social, cultural, environmental and economic conditions in the target area.     

Environmental portfolio analysis: An integrated strategic approach to environmental management

As businesses strive to reduce costs and become more competitive, environmental costs and potential future liability issues continue to raise overhead expenses. The decision process is further challenged by the various interpretations of existing laws and the uncertainty of future applicable regulations and their interpretation. To make more informed business decisions and bridge the gap between the environmental and business perspective, organizations need to be able to see the overall environmental picture and how it affects the current and future business operation. This article presents a systematic approach to developing an organization's integrated baseline “environmental portfolio” with various business risk levels and expected costs. Utilizing computer simulation, sensitivity iterations are performed to show the results of different scenarios. These scenarios can include various probabilities of cost levels, permitting strategies, and litigation, as well as the success of new technologies. Management can then focus attention on the main driving factors and avoid spending too much attention on lesser items. An additional benefit to this process is that communication between the various segments of an organization are enhanced since their perspectives are clearly articulated as part of the analysis. Sensitivity analysis also provides the framework for a sanity check of the process and results. Are projected levels of success reasonable? What levels would be required to change the decision, and how likely are they to occur? What level of overall business risk associated with environmental issues is prudent? In addition this article shows how computer modeling and simulation can bring a valuable perspective to the decision-making process.     

Towards a science of sustainable upland management in developing countries

Farmers attempting to subsist in tropical uplands often rely upon unsustainable resource use practices that lead to soil erosion, declining crop yields, and a loss of soil productivity capacity. Other uses of tropical uplands, including logging and conversion of forest to rangelands, have similar results. The undesirable effects of these actions are felt on-site, at the watershed level, and even nationally. Ecological cause-effect relationships are poorly understood, and few examples exist of the successful integration of ecological knowledge with upland development. It is hypothesized that recent results of ecological research could be applied to uplands management so that stable sustainable systems of human use may be established. A second hypothesis is that statistically reliable data can be obtained from experiments in upland situations, although natural variations of soils, weather, and vegetation are great. To test these hypotheses, research involving multinational collaboration among American and Southeast Asian scientists has begun. The objective of the work is to provide credible quantitative information to help policy and decision makers and resident farmers to plan and implement improved practices based on ecological principles.Some findings to date include:

Environmental issues for developing countries arising from liberalized trade in the mining industry

This review analyses some of the environmental and economic implications of current trade policies and changes in the world trading system for mineral producers and consumers. A principal factor which determines environmental performance is whether firms have the resources and capabilities to undertake innovation. We therefore place particular emphasis on the anticipated effects of liberalized trade on innovation and competitiveness at the firm level. Evidence indicates that improvements in environmental management would be expected to occur irrespective of the country hosting the investment. Due to the opening investment climate and relatively large quantities of mineral reserves, we expect these effects to be positive for many mineral producing developing countries. One difficulty which may arise is whether policy measures to promote production efficiency and develop innovation in mining and mineral processing operations could be interpreted as protectionism. The creation of new lines of credit, to promote, but not subsidize, technological and organizational innovation, may be the best way forward for developing countries .     

Environmental system management and governance needs in a developing country

Environmental governance in the twenty-first century in Bangladesh faces serious challenges in terms of improving service delivery. There are surfeits of laws, rules and regulations as well as institutions to manage and govern the environmental sector. The legal regime is quite comprehensive, yet little attempts have been made so far to iron out the contradictions and duplications among existing rules and regulations. Institutions continue to suffer because of a number of reasons. Coordination among different ministries and other agencies in the governmental and non-governmental sectors is poor. Inter-organizational meetings and other follow-up meetings are not regularly held and usually fail to achieve their intended objectives. Though attempts have been made to involve people at the formulation stage of action plans, seldom people are taken into confidence and consulted with when these plans are implemented. One of the consequences of such a situation is people’s lack of interest in government-sponsored environmental protection programs. The decision-making procedure/situation of different environmental development projects and policies did not follow the holistic or coordinated principles so that post-impacts of works appeared vast and diverse conflicts. This paper tries to search the history of environmental protection of Bangladesh, relevant environmental laws, rules, regulations and projects and major international conventions, treaties, and protocols signed or ratified by Bangladesh as well as investigates the current situation, mechanism and decision making regarding environment in the context of environmental governance, analyzing the problems and also explored the challenges for environmental management in Bangladesh and associated problems and risks of system and finally proposed some core guidelines of effective environmental governance and system management for Bangladesh.     

Refinery deregulation in developing countries

For much of the 1980s refining has been unprofitable. The continued operation of small refineries in oil-importing developing countries has therefore come under intense scrutiny, especially by the international financial institutions concerned with high levels of external debt. This paper examines the specific case of Morocco. Even though refining may be unprofitable at the world's export refineries, refining may still be part of the least-cost solution to meeting developing country petroleum demands as a result of transport differentials. Unlike some other refineries in Africa, those of Morocco are well run, and closure is unwarranted. Rather the need is for regulatory and pricing reform, such that refiners can respond more flexibly to changes in world markets.     

Environmental values,conflicts and issues in evaluation

Summary The existence of conflicts over the use of resources and with respect to the environment is widely acknowledged. The fields of resource management and environmental planning are, in fact, largely dedicated to identifying and resolving such conflicts. In this paper it is proposed that the sources of conflict can be seen in terms of the different values held by groups and individuals in relation to the environment and resource use. The discussion is also concerned with identifying more specifically the nature of conflicts that arise in relation to particular resource-use issues. A further important proposition developed is that in order to promote effective planning, rigorous and systematic methods of analysis are often required. Those best suited to evaluation in environmental and resources planning are capable of incorporating multiple metrics.Dr Chris Cocklin is Lecturer in Geography and an Associate of Environmental Science at the University of Auckland, New Zealand. His research interests are in resources and environmental management, energy studies and rural land-use analysis and planning. The main focus of his work to date has been on the development and application of appropriate methods of analysis to assist in the formulation of suitable management strategies.This paper is based on a presentation made to the New Zealand Geographical Society (Auckland Branch) Annual Lecture Series, 12th August 1987.     

Soil erosion in developing countries: a socio-economic appraisal

Soil erosion is the single most important environmental degradation problem in the developing world. Despite the plethora of literature that exists on the incidence, causes and impacts of soil erosion, a concrete understanding of this complex problem is lacking. This paper examines the soil erosion problem in developing countries in order to understand the complex inter-relationships between population pressure, poverty and environmental-institutional dynamics. Two recent theoretical developments, namely Boserup's theory on population pressure, poverty and soil erosion and Lopez's theory on environmental and institutional dynamics have been reviewed. The analysis reveals that negative impacts of technical change, inappropriate government policies and poor institutions are largely responsible for the continued soil erosion in developing countries. On the other hand, potential for market-based approaches to mitigate the problem is also low due to the negative externalities involved. A deeper appreciation of institutional and environmental dynamics and policy reforms to strengthen weak institutions may help mitigate the problem.     

Soil erosion in developing countries: A politicoeconomic explanation

Soil erosion is accelerating in developing countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. It has threatened the livelihood of millions of peasants, for agriculture is their economic mainstay. A probe into the forces causing erosion reveals that the elite’s resolve to accumulate ever more wealth and to maintain, consolidate, or expand their sociopolitical power and the necessity of the poor to fulfill their requirements of food, fuelwood, and fodder are the two major factors accelerating soil erosion. Unless the vast masses of poor people are integrated into the national mainstream through the implementation of equitable and redistributive development policies, it is impossible to control the accelerating rate of soil erosion and thus to achieve the objective of sustainable development. In this article, the phenomenon “soil erosion” is studied with the sol e focus on causation through anthropogenic factors.     

Management of environment in developing countries

Summary Environmental problems in developing countries partly arise out of lack of development, hence they are intricately linked to the socio-economic conditions. Environmental awareness and environmental education are critical under these conditions but these are time consuming and slow solutions. Integration of economic and environmental plans for various regions have to be attempted systematically. Time is running out, and unless comprehensive steps are taken up some of the capital assets (such as forests, fresh water, soils, etc.) are likely to be irretrievably damaged.Dr B. Bowonder was, until recently, Chairman of the Centre for Energy, Environment and Technology at the Administrative Staff College, Hyderabad. He recently joined this Journal's Advisory Board and his analysis of the Bhopal Incident (The Environmentalist, 5 (2) 89–103) created considerable interest. He is currently a member of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific.     

Solid waste management in European countries: a review of systems analysis techniques

In the past few decades, solid waste management systems in Europe have involved complex and multi-faceted trade-offs among a plethora of technological alternatives, economic instruments, and regulatory frameworks. These changes resulted in various environmental, economic, social, and regulatory impacts in waste management practices which not only complicate regional policy analysis, but also reshape the paradigm of global sustainable development. Systems analysis, a discipline that harmonizes these integrated solid waste management strategies, has been uniquely providing interdisciplinary support for decision making in this area. Systems engineering models and system assessment tools, both of which enrich the analytical framework of waste management, were designed specifically to handle particular types of problems. Though how to smooth out the barriers toward achieving appropriate systems synthesis and integration of these models and tools to aid in the solid waste management schemes prevalent in European countries still remains somewhat uncertain. This paper conducts a thorough literature review of models and tools illuminating possible overlapped boundaries in waste management practices in European countries and encompassing the pros and cons of waste management practices in each member state of the European Union. Whereas the Southern European Union (EU) countries need to develop further measures to implement more integrated solid waste management and reach EU directives, the Central EU countries need models and tools with which to rationalize their technological choices and management strategies. Nevertheless, considering systems analysis models and tools in a synergistic way would certainly provide opportunities to develop better solid waste management strategies leading to conformity with current standards and foster future perspectives for both the waste management industry and government agencies in European Union.     

The bhopal incident: Implications for developing countries

Summary The author summarizes the events of the Bhopal disaster as they are currently known, and draws a number of very important conclusions regarding safety procedures. These have implications for all developing countries.Dr. B. Bowonder is Chairman of the Centre for Energy, Environment and Technology at the Staff College and, as a regular contributor to this journal, he was invited to analyze the Bhopal incident.