Innovation in environmental policy: the National Environmental Policy Act of the US and the Resource Management Act of New Zealand

On enactment, both the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 1970 of the US and the Resource Management Act (RMA), 1991 of New Zealand received accolades for innovativeness. However, is such praise justified when these acts are explored through the literature on policy innovation? This paper suggests that it is. More importantly, recognizing how different attributes of innovation contribute to having a policy adopted suggests what the crafters of future environmental policies might do well to consider. It is critical to attend to the political climate in which a policy is being drafted.     

Implementation of US Surface Mine and Reclamation Act

The US Congress is currently studying various ways through which legislation similar to that of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977— which is concerned mainly with coal, can be applied to all minerals other than coal. This study analyses three US mineral industries—copper, iron ore, and phosphate rock - and identifies a number of areas which Congress and other decision makers ought to consider in arriving at such legislation. The author concludes that reclamation costs may affect the economic and financial performance of each of these industries in a different manner; furthermore, their economic behaviour is significantly different from that of coal. The author's main recommendation is that if surface mining regulations are to be legislated, they should be industry- and commodity-specific rather than umbrella legislation for all non-coal minerals.     

重视地下水资源开发利用与保护

本文着重介绍了国内外地下水开发利用状况，以及造成水质严重污染，影响人类的生存，提出合理开发利用和保护地下水资源，已成为当今世界上的重要课题，提出了和措施，一，强调地下不和地表水是自然界水循环中两个密切相关的环境，必须统一管理，协调开发，二，应用计算机技术，建立管理模型。三，注意解决地表与地下水联合规划，海水入侵，地面沉降，工农业污染，人工回灌等，四，加强对水质和生态环境的保护。     

The US Clean Water Act and habitat replacement: evaluation of mitigation sites in Orange County,California, USA

Both permit requirements and ecological assessments have been used to evaluate mitigation success. This analysis combines these two approaches to evaluate mitigation required under Section 404 of the United States Clean Water Act (CWA) and Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act, which allow developers to provide compensatory mitigation for unavoidable impacts to wetlands. This study reviewed permit files and conducted field assessments of mitigation sites to evaluate the effectiveness of mitigation required by the US Army Corps of Engineers for all permits issued in Orange County, California from 1979 through 1993. The 535 permit actions approved during this period allowed 157 ha of impacts. Mitigation was required on 70 of these actions, with 152 ha of enhanced, restored, and created habitat required for 136 ha of impacts. In 15 permit actions, no mitigation project was constructed, but in only two cases was the originally permitted project built; the two cases resulted in an unmitigated loss of 1.6 ha. Of the remaining 55 sites, 55% were successful at meeting the permit conditions while 11% failed to do so. Based on a qualitative assessment of habitat quality, only 16% of the sites could be considered successful and 26% were considered failures. Thus, of the 126 ha of habitat lost due to the 55 projects, only 26 ha of mitigation was considered successful. The low success rate was not due to poor enforcement, although nearly half of the projects did not comply with all permit conditions. Mitigation success could best be improved by requiring mitigation plans to have performance standards based on habitat functions.     

Natural Resource Dependency and Decentralized Conservation Within Kanchenjunga Conservation Area Project,Nepal

Kanchenjunga Conservation Area Project (KCAP) in Nepal is among the first protected areas in the world to institute a completely decentralized system of conservation and development. Proponents of decentralized conservation claim that it increases management efficiency, enhances the responsiveness to local needs, and promotes greater equity among local residents. This study assessed local equity by evaluating the levels of dependencies on natural resources among households and the factors affecting that dependency. Data were collected via detailed surveys among 205 randomly selected households within the KCAP. Natural resource dependency was evaluated by comparing the ratio of total household income to income derived from access to natural resources. Economic, social, and access-related variables were employed to determine potential significant predictors of dependency. Overall, households were heavily dependent on natural resources for their income, especially households at higher elevations and those with more adult members. The households that received remittances were most able to supplement their income and, therefore, drastically reduced their reliance on the access to natural resources. Socio-economic variables, such as land holdings, education, caste, and ethnicity, failed to predict dependency. Household participation in KCAP-sponsored training programs also failed to affect household dependency; however, fewer than 20% of the households had any form of direct contact with KCAP personnel within the past year. The success of the KCAP as a decentralized conservation program is contingent on project capacity-building via social mobilization, training programs, and participatory inclusion in decision making to help alleviate the dependency on natural resources.     

西部的生态恢复与水土保持对策

水资源和土地资源的不合理开发利用是造成西部严重生态环境问题的根源。因此,西部的生态恢复,必须从解决水生态失衡和控制严重的水土流失、土地荒漠化入手,以提高植被整体覆盖度为手段,逐步达到恢复西部生态环境功能的目的。     

资源回收型湿式氨法烟气脱硫技术

阐述了资源回收型湿式氨法烟气脱硫技术的原理和适用范围;介绍了该技术在电力行业、化工行业的应用情况及应用前景;指出回收型湿式氨法烟气脱硫工艺成熟、适用煤种广、脱硫效率高、运行稳定,其副产品硫酸铵的品质符合农用化肥标准,可完全满足农业应用要求,是一种可实现循环经济的绿色脱硫工艺。     

Resource Use Among Rural Agricultural Households Near Protected Areas in Vietnam: The Social Costs of Conservation and Implications for Enforcement

This article examines the use of forests in a protected area by nearby agriculturalists in central Vietnam. Research indicates that the majority of rural farmers interviewed who lived near a state designated protected area were receiving both subsistence and cash incomes from forest-based activities, primarily from the collection of forest products. However, much of the collection of forest produce was officially illegal, as it occurred in state protected forests, and interdiction efforts were on the increase. Yet, little attention has been paid in Vietnam to the need for income substitution for households who lose access to forest produce as a result of conservation enforcement, particularly in the case of farmers who live near, but not in, protected areas; their resources use has been ‘invisible’ due to a lack of attention and research on the topic. This misunderstanding of the importance of forests to rural farmers has the potential to result in households facing adverse welfare and livelihood outcomes as protected areas boundaries are tightened, and local communities face increased opportunity costs due to stricter conservation enforcement. The article concludes that substitution for loss of income due to conservation activities would best be achieved through carefully targeted interventions to specific high-impact and high-dependency households. Additionally, investments in new sources of wage labor and other low capital-input activities, rather than in agriculture, would likely be of most benefit.     

Social Networks and Community-Based Natural Resource Management

We conducted case studies of three successful examples of collaborative, community-based natural resource conservation and development. Our purpose was to: (1) identify the functions served by interactions within the social networks of involved stakeholders; (2) describe key structural properties of these social networks; and (3) determine how these structural properties varied when the networks were serving different functions. The case studies relied on semi-structured, in-depth interviews of 8 to 11 key stakeholders at each site who had played a significant role in the collaborative projects. Interview questions focused on the roles played by key stakeholders and the functions of interactions between them. Interactions allowed the exchange of ideas, provided access to funding, and enabled some stakeholders to influence others. The exchange of ideas involved the largest number of stakeholders, the highest percentage of local stakeholders, and the highest density of interactions. Our findings demonstrated the value of tailoring strategies for involving stakeholders to meet different needs during a collaborative, community-based natural resource management project. Widespread involvement of local stakeholders may be most appropriate when ideas for a project are being developed. During efforts to exert influence to secure project approvals or funding, however, involving specific individuals with political connections or influence on possible sources of funds may be critical. Our findings are consistent with past work that has postulated that social networks may require specific characteristics to meet different needs in community-based environmental management.     

青海省黄河水生生物资源养护现状及保护对策

文章分析了青海省黄河水生生物资源情况及存在的问题,并根据问题提出了相应的对策。     

城市污泥的资源化与防治措施

本文根据有关资料,简要介绍了污水污泥的几种处理和再利用的方法．指出污水污泥的再利用即资源化是污泥处理的重要方向。     

循环经济理念下畜禽废弃物的资源化

运用循环经济理论,针对畜禽排泄物治理和科学利用,提出了畜禽粪便减量化、资源化措施。畜禽粪便作为新的资源在降低自然资源消耗的同时,给农业经济增长提供了有力的支撑。在循环经济模式下,人、畜禽养殖与生态环境之间互动影响已不再是破坏生态环境、限制经济发展的障碍,而是表现为一种社会、经济和环境"共赢"的有利局面。     

Impending Recovery of Kirtland's Warbler: Case Study in the Effectiveness of the Endangered Species Act

Dendroica kirtlandii ). This particular recovery program actually began before passage of the federal ESA, when biologists alerted the Michigan Department of Natural Resources of the perilously low population of this bird, which only breeds under jack pine (Pinus banksiana) trees in Michigan. By the time an ESA Recovery Team was formed for this bird in 1975 (the first such team created under the ESA), a legacy of consensus and interagency cooperation was well established. This has led to successful efforts at habitat management and control of its nest parasite, the brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater). While the Kirtland's warbler is not yet recovered, its population is near an all-time high, and its recovery is possible within the next decade. When (and if) this happens, it will be clearly attributable to this successful model of federalism for natural resources management.     

Progress with Implementing the Environmental Assessment Requirements of the Resource Management Act in New Zealand

The Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA) has introduced environmental impact assessment (EIA) into the operations of territorial authorities at the regional and district level in New Zealand. The system established by the RMA is not only devolved in administrative terms, it is also comprehensive in its application. This paper reports the findings of an interview-based survey of key personnel in selected regional and district councils, along with others from government departments, planning consultancies and law firms. The purpose is to assess the success of the councils in developing appropriate and workable procedures, and to identify the main problems likely to inhibit the development of an effective EIA system in New Zealand. Overall, the task of implementing the EIA requirements has been tackled positively by councils, but there are signs of major differences emerging in the EIA procedures they are developing. Key issues that need to be considered by councils include: the need for explanatory documentation for, and verbal advice to, resource consents applicants at the earliest stage possible; the lack of public involvement in the EIA activities and the need for council staff to encourage and facilitate such participation; and problems with ensuring the adequacy of EIA information in such a devolved and comprehensive EIA system.     

Land-Cover Assessment of Conservation and Buffer Zones in the BOSAWAS Natural Resource Reserve of Nicaragua

The BOSAWAS Natural Resource Reserve of Nicaragua was established in 1991, to protect a portion of the remaining tropical rain forest and to promote the sustainable use of the region's resources. Information required to effectively manage the reserve includes the extents and locations of present land-cover types and recent land-cover changes in the management use zones that were delineated by local indigenous communities. These zones include areas designated for conservation, limited resource extraction, agriculture, and watershed protection. Land-cover for 1986 and 1995 was identified for three of the communities from remotely sensed images and then input into a geographic information system database to identify land-cover types within these management use zones. For both dates of the analysis, advanced forest was the dominant land cover, with the conservation zones entirely forested. The amount of both agricultural land and scrub/early secondary forest increased between the two dates, with much of these land-cover classes occurring in the agriculture zones. Conflicts between the land-cover present and designated use were identified in some of the limited-use buffer and watershed protection zones. Changes between 1986 and 1995 were identified by overlaying the two land-cover data sets. Three change processes were identified as occurring: deforestation, reforestation, and reconversion. Changes were concentrated in the agriculture zones but were found to occur in every type of zone, except for conservation. The results of this study will establish baseline information for the future management of the BOSAWAS Reserve, an important component in uniting conservation areas along the Central American isthmus.     

浅析电镀含铜和含镍污泥的资源化回收工艺

电镀污泥中含有大量重金属,属于危险废物,但经恰当处理,对金属进行回收,可产生一定的经济效益和环境效益,其中的铜和镍最具有回收价值。本文简述了电镀含铜和含镍污泥的资源化回收工艺,并对其中的物料平衡和金属平衡作了分析。     

基于Markov的水土保持和社会发展耦合分析

水土保持对社会发展意义重大,主要以山东省为例进行了分析。在预期收益的计算中,利用离散时间的Markov决策过程进行了相关系数、关联度的分析,可以看出水土保持投资与各类收益之间的相关性,进而可以分析出水土保持对经济发展的重要指导意义。