Outdoor air pollution and term low birth weight in Japan

IntroductionEvidence has accumulated on the association between ambient air pollution and adverse birth outcomes. However, most of the previous studies were conducted in geographically distinct areas and suffer from lack of important potential covariates. We examined the effect of ambient air pollution on term low birth weight (LBW) using data from a nationwide population-based longitudinal survey in Japan that began in 2001.MethodsWe restricted participants to term singletons (n = 44,109). Air pollution concentrations during the 9 months before birth were obtained at the municipality level and were assigned to the participants who were born in the corresponding municipality. We conducted multilevel logistic regression analyses adjusting for individual and municipality-level variables.ResultsWe found that air pollution exposure during pregnancy was positively associated with the risk of term LBW. In the fully adjusted models, odds ratios following one interquartile range increase in each pollutant were 1.09 (95% confidence interval: 1.00, 1.19) for suspended particulate matter (SPM), 1.11 (0.99, 1.26) for nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and 1.71 (1.18, 2.46) for sulfur dioxide (SO₂). Specifically, effect estimates for SPM and NO₂ exposure at the first trimester were higher than those at other trimesters, while SO₂ was associated with the risk at all trimesters. Nonsmoking mothers were more susceptible to SPM and NO₂ exposure compared with smoking mothers.ConclusionsAmbient air pollution increases the risk of term LBW in a nationally representative sample in Japan.     

GIS支持下广东水体污染与社会经济发展指标的关系分析

利用地理信息系统（GIS）提供的空间数据管理操作和空间分析功能，以广东省1998年，1999年水质状况为例，建立了河流水污染空间信息系统，以地区（市）为单位，利用统计方法建立了水质状况与社会经济发展指标的定量关系，并进行了二者的空间关系分析。结果表明，无论从统计关系还是空间分布上，水质状况与单位面积人口数目、人均工业总产值、单位面积农业产值之间都存在较为密切的关系。通过比较，本文指出了广东省水体重污染区人口密度，工、农业总产值的范围与分布，为分析河流水污染及其影响因素和变化规律提供了一种新的尝试。     

Future climate and adverse health effects caused by fine particulate matter air pollution: case study for Poland

Ground level air pollution, especially fine particulate matter (PM_2.5), has been associated with a number of adverse health effects. The dispersion of PM_2.5 through the atmosphere depends on several mutually connected anthropogenic, geophysical and meteorological parameters, all of which are affected by climate change. This study examines how projected climate change would affect population exposure to PM_2.5 air pollution in Poland. Population exposure to PM_2.5 in Poland was estimated for three decades: the 1990s, 2040s and 2090s. Future climate conditions were projected by Regional Climate Model RegCM (Beta), forced by the general atmospheric circulation model ECHAM5. The dispersion of PM_2.5 was simulated with chemical transport model CAMx version 4.40. Population exposure estimates of PM_2.5 were 18.3, 17.2 and 17.1 μg/m³ for the 1990s, 2040s and 2090s, respectively. PM_2.5 air pollution was estimated to cause approximately 39,800 premature deaths in the population of Poland in the year 2000. Our results indicate that in Poland, climate change may reduce the levels of exposure to anthropogenic particulate air pollution in future decades and that this reduction will reduce adverse health effects caused by the air pollution.     

Short-term effects of air pollution on respiratory morbidity at Rio de Janeiro — PART I: Air Pollution Assessment

Exposure to air pollution has been related with the most varied adverse health outcomes. This study aims to assess the impact of air pollution on the emergency hospitalization for respiratory disease in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The study was divided in two parts: Part I specifically addressing the air pollution assessment and Part II addressing the health assessment. Accordingly, this Part I aims to: i) evaluate the concentrations of PM₁₀, SO₂ and CO at two sites in Rio de Janeiro and compare them; ii) analyse the concentrations observed according to the national and international standards; and iii) analyse the air pollutants behaviour, namely, annually, seasonally, daily and considering weekdays/weekends variations. The pollutant concentrations were measured at two different sites in Rio de Janeiro and the analysis was performed for the period between September 2000 and December 2005. Results showed that PM₁₀ concentrations in Rio de Janeiro exceeded the daily and annual standards imposed by the European Union, the Brazilian legislation and WHO guidelines. Regarding SO₂ and CO, concentrations were, generally, below both European and Brazilian standards. Nevertheless, considering WHO guidelines, SO₂ threshold for daily concentrations (20 μg m^− 3) was exceeded around 150 times. Behaviour assessment showed that the influence of traffic is a major factor affecting the air pollution in Rio de Janeiro.Considering the results achieved and the proven health effects of air pollution, strategies should be defined for its reduction, particularly concerning particulate matter, and consequently contribute to the protection of public health.     

Assessment of ambient air quality in Eskişehir, Turkey

This paper presents an assessment of air quality of the city Eskişehir, located 230 km southwest to the capital of Turkey. Only five of the major air pollutants, most studied worldwide and available for the region, were considered for the assessment. Available sulphur dioxide (SO₂), particulate matter (PM), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), ozone (O₃), and non-methane volatile organic carbons (NMVOCs) data from local emission inventory studies provided relative source contributions of the selected pollutants to the region.The contributions of these typical pollution parameters, selected for characterizing such an urban atmosphere, were compared with the data established for other cities in the nation and world countries. Additionally, regional ambient SO₂ and PM concentrations, determined by semi-automatic monitoring at two sites, were gathered from the National Ambient Air Monitoring Network (NAAMN). Regional data for ambient NO₂ (as a precursor of ozone as VOCs) and ozone concentrations, through the application of the passive sampling method, were provided by the still ongoing local air quality monitoring studies conducted at six different sites, as representatives of either the traffic-dense-, or coal/natural gas burning residential-, or industrial/rural-localities of the city. Passively sampled ozone data at a single rural site were also verified with the data from a continuous automatic ozone monitoring system located at that site. Effects of variations in seasonal-activities, newly established railway system, and switching to natural gas usage on the temporal changes of air quality were all considered for the assessment. Based on the comparisons with the national [AQCR (Air Quality Control Regulation). Ministry of Environment (MOE), Ankara. Official Newspaper 19269; 1986.] and a number of international [WHO (World Health Organization). Guidelines for Air Quality. Geneva; 2000. Downloaded in January 2006, website: http://www.who.int/peh/; EU (European Union). Council Directive 1999/30/EC relating to limit values for sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and lead in ambient air. Of J Eur Communities L 163: 14–30; 29.6.1999; EU (European Union). Council Directive 2002/3/EC relating to ozone in ambient air. Of J Eur Communities. L 67: 14–30; 9.3.2002.; USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). Downloaded in January 2006, website: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/] ambient air standards, among all the pollutants studied, only the annual average SO₂ concentration was found to exceed one specific limit value (EU limit for protection of the ecosystem). A part of the data (VOC/NO_x ratio), for determining the effects of photochemical interactions, indicated that VOC-limited regime was prevailing throughout the city.     

Major factors contributing to environmental awareness among people in a third world country/Jordan

The objective of this research was to evaluate the major factors contributing to environmental awareness among people in a third world country such as Jordan. Two thousand individuals from different locations in the southern part of Jordan participated in the survey and completed the questionnaire in the fall of 2004. The questionnaire consisted of 30 questions grouped into the following categories of major environmental issues: general environmental problems, air pollution, water resources, solid waste, noise pollution, and desertification. The target population encompassed people with different backgrounds including gender, age, education levels, location of residency, and social status. The questionnaire was distributed according to the population density throughout five major cities and 59 villages. Analysis of Variance was conducted on the means of the sample populations determined by gender, age, education, and geographic distribution to verify that the apparent differences of the means were statistically significant. The environmental awareness of females in this study as quantified by an overall index exceeded that of males in each of the individual cities and villages surveyed and therefore throughout the region. For the entire study, the overall index was 65.3–62.8, respectively. The statistical results of the survey revealed that the city of Aqaba in the southern region of Jordan had greater environmental awareness than the other cities surveyed. Environmental awareness among university students increased linearly as they proceeded from the first year to the fifth year. The education level of the survey respondents played a significant role in the degree of environmental awareness in all cities and villages surveyed. Environmental awareness was also affected by the difference in age range, with the older groups having more consistent responses and higher overall index of environmental awareness.     

Long-term air pollution exposure and diabetes in a population-based Swiss cohort

Air pollution is an important risk factor for global burden of disease. There has been recent interest in its possible role in the etiology of diabetes mellitus. Experimental evidence is suggestive, but epidemiological evidence is limited and mixed. We therefore explored the association between air pollution and prevalent diabetes, in a population-based Swiss cohort.We did cross-sectional analyses of 6392 participants of the Swiss Cohort Study on Air Pollution and Lung and Heart Diseases in Adults [SAPALDIA], aged between 29 and 73 years. We used estimates of average individual home outdoor PM₁₀ [particulate matter <10 μm in diameter] and NO₂ [nitrogen dioxide] exposure over the 10 years preceding the survey. Their association with diabetes was modeled using mixed logistic regression models, including participants' study area as random effect, with incremental adjustment for confounders.There were 315 cases of diabetes (prevalence: 5.5% [95% confidence interval (CI): 2.8, 7.2%]). Both PM₁₀ and NO₂ were associated with prevalent diabetes with respective odds ratios of 1.40 [95% CI: 1.17, 1.67] and 1.19 [95% CI: 1.03, 1.38] per 10 μg/m³ increase in the average home outdoor level. Associations with PM₁₀ were generally stronger than with NO₂, even in the two-pollutant model. There was some indication that beta blockers mitigated the effect of PM₁₀. The associations remained stable across different sensitivity analyses.Our study adds to the evidence that long term air pollution exposure is associated with diabetes mellitus. PM₁₀ appears to be a useful marker of aspects of air pollution relevant for diabetes. This association can be observed at concentrations below air quality guidelines.     

High resolution exposure modelling of heat and air pollution and the impact on mortality

BackgroundElevated temperature and air pollution have been associated with increased mortality. Exposure to heat and air pollution, as well as the density of vulnerable groups varies within cities. The objective was to investigate the extent of neighbourhood differences in mortality risk due to heat and air pollution in a city with a temperate maritime climate.MethodsA case-crossover design was used to study associations between heat, air pollution and mortality. Different thermal indicators and air pollutants (PM₁₀, NO₂, O₃) were reconstructed at high spatial resolution to improve exposure classification. Daily exposures were linked to individual mortality cases over a 15 year period.ResultsSignificant interaction between maximum air temperature (Ta_max) and PM₁₀ was observed. During “summer smog” days (Ta_max > 25 °C and PM₁₀ > 50 μg/m³), the mortality risk at lag 2 was 7% higher compared to the reference (Ta_max 15 °C and PM₁₀ 15 μg/m³). Persons above age 85 living alone were at highest risk.ConclusionWe found significant synergistic effects of high temperatures and air pollution on mortality. Single living elderly were the most vulnerable group. Due to spatial differences in temperature and air pollution, mortality risks varied substantially between neighbourhoods, with a difference up to 7%.     

Relationship between air pollution and daily mortality in a subtropical city: Taipei, Taiwan

Air pollution has been associated with daily mortality in numerous studies over the past decade. However most of these studies were conducted in the United States and Europe with relatively few done in Asia. In the current study, the association between ambient air pollution and daily mortality in Taipei, Taiwan's largest city which has a subtropical climate was undertaken, for the period 1994-1998 using a case-crossover analysis. This design is an alternative to Poisson time series regression for studying the short-term adverse health effects of air pollution. The air pollutants examined included particulate matter (PM(10)), sulfur dioxide (SO(2)), ozone (O(3)), nitrogen dioxide (NO(2)), and carbon monoxide (CO). The largest observed effect, which was without statistical significance, was seen for NO(2) and CO levels on deaths due to respiratory diseases (ORs=1.013 and 1.014, respectively). The well established link between air pollution levels and daily mortality may not be as strong in cities in subtropical areas, although other factors such as differences in pollutant mix or the underlying health of the population may explain the lack of a strong association in this study. Further studies of this type in cities with varying climates and cultures are needed.     

Inequalities in cumulative environmental burdens among three urbanized counties in California

Low-income communities and communities of color often suffer from multiple environmental hazards that pose risks to their health. Here we extended a cumulative environmental hazard inequality index (CEHII) – developed to assess inequalities in air pollution hazards – to compare the inequality among three urban counties in California: Alameda, San Diego, and Los Angeles. We included a metric for heat stress to the analysis because exposure to excessively hot weather is increasingly recognized as a threat to human health and well-being. We determined if inequalities from heat stress differed between the three regions and if this added factor modified the metric for inequality from cumulative exposure to air pollution. This analysis indicated that of the three air pollutants considered, diesel particulate matter had the greatest inequality, followed by nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and fine particulate matter (PM_2.5). As measured by our index, the inequalities from cumulative exposure to air pollution were greater than those of single pollutants. Inequalities were significantly different among single air pollutant hazards within each region and between regions; however, inequalities from the cumulative burdens did not differ significantly between any two regions. Modeled absolute and relative heat stress inequalities were small except for relative heat stress in San Diego which had the second highest inequality. Our analysis, techniques, and results provide useful insights for policy makers to assess inequalities between regions and address factors that contribute to overall environmental inequality within each region.     

A quantitative risk assessment method based on population and exposure distributions using Australian air quality data

This paper develops a practical probabilistic method for assessing aggregate population health risks from different types of population exposures. The method consists of calculating the product of two functions: a population-weighted distribution of concentrations and a concentration-response distribution. This operation yields the corresponding aggregated health-risk distribution function. The method can use alternative exposure-response distributions and populations-specific exposure patterns, depending on the context of the assessment. A deterministic sensitivity analysis is included in the methodological aspects of this research. The distributions of concentrations are generated by combining area-specific population densities with atmospheric concentrations for each of the areas where exposure to air pollutants occurs. The exposure-response functions are developed from the literature. The method is exemplified using alternative exposure probabilities to carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter (PM₁₀), and exposure-response models developed specifically for these pollutants for assessing health risks, and applied to data from a number of Australian cities. The results, which hold when the functions are monotonic, show single maximum per pollutant, regardless of the choice of exposure and exposure-response distribution. Although those maxima are often below the Australian Air Pollution Standards, there are instances when this is not the case.     

技术异质下中国大气污染排放效率的区域差异与影响因素

近年来中国雾霾天气的频繁发生给人们的生产、生活以及身体健康构成巨大威胁。提高大气污染排放效率,深入挖掘大气污染减排潜力是改善中国大气环境质量,减少和消除雾霾天气发生的重要途径。本文根据生态效率理论,充分考虑到不同区域发展的不平衡因素与技术异质性特征,在共同前沿方法框架下科学测算2006—2014年间中国30个省份的大气污染排放效率,在此基础上分析效率的区域差异,利用"技术差距比(TGR)"这一指标衡量东部、中部与西部三大区域之间大气污染排放技术的差距,并从"技术"与"管理"两个维度进一步将各省份大气污染排放无效率分解为"技术差距无效率(TGI)"与"管理无效率(GMI)",以此定位各省份大气污染防治的薄弱环节,进而构建策略矩阵,将全国各省份归入四个不同排放效率特征的方阵,并给出相应的优化路径与措施;深入揭示大气污染排放效率与排放强度之间的内在联系,提出"大气污染排放强度效率"这一全新概念并考察其演化趋势;利用面板Tobit回归模型检验影响我国省际大气污染排放效率与排放技术的外部环境因素。实证结果表明:1中国大气污染排放效率整体水平偏低,年均仅为0.493,污染减排潜力巨大;2中国大气污染排放效率与排放技术的地区差异显著,无论是大气污染排放效率还是排放技术水平,东部地区都是明显高于中部与西部地区;3中国大气污染的实际排放强度明显高于潜在排放强度,这表明大气污染排放强度还存在很大的改进空间;4经济发展、产业结构升级与科技创新对大气污染排放效率与排放技术的提升均有显著促进作用,煤炭消费比重上升与人口密度过大则对其有显著抑制作用;5本文的研究结论支持"波特假说"与"污染避难所"假说。     

Long-term trend and spatial pattern of PM2.5 induced premature mortality in China

With rapid economic growth, China has witnessed increasingly frequent and severe haze and smog episodes over the past decade, posing serious health impacts to the Chinese population, especially those in densely populated city clusters. Quantification of the spatial and temporal variation of health impacts attributable to ambient fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) has important implications for China's policies on air pollution control. In this study, we evaluated the spatial distribution of premature deaths in China between 2000 and 2010 attributable to ambient PM_2.5 in accord with the Global Burden of Disease based on a high resolution population density map of China, satellite retrieved PM_2.5 concentrations, and provincial health data. Our results suggest that China's anthropogenic ambient PM_2.5 led to 1,255,400 premature deaths in 2010, 42% higher than the level in 2000. Besides increased PM_2.5 concentration, rapid urbanization has attracted large population migration into the more developed eastern coastal urban areas, intensifying the overall health impact. In addition, our analysis implies that health burdens were exacerbated in some developing inner provinces with high population density (e.g. Henan, Anhui, Sichuan) because of the relocation of more polluting and resource-intensive industries into these regions. In order to avoid such national level environmental inequities, China's regulations on PM_2.5 should not be loosened in inner provinces. Furthermore policies should create incentive mechanisms that can promote transfer of advanced production and emissions control technologies from the coastal regions to the interior regions.     

Exposure to traffic-related air pollution and the risk of developing breast cancer among women in eight Canadian provinces: A case–control study

A few recent studies have reported positive associations between long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution and the incidence of breast cancer. We capitalized on an existing Canadian multi-site population-based case–control study to further investigate this association.We used the National Enhanced Cancer Surveillance System, a population-based case–control study conducted in eight of 10 Canadian provinces from 1994 to 1997. A total of 1569 breast cancer cases and 1872 population controls who reported at least 90% complete self-reported addresses over the 1975–1994 exposure period were examined. Mean exposure levels to nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) (an indicator of traffic-related air pollution) were estimated for this period using three different measures: (1) satellite-derived observations; (2) satellite-derived observations scaled with historical fixed-site measurements of NO₂; and (3) a national land-use regression (LUR) model. Proximity to major roads was also examined. Using unconditional logistic regression, stratified by menopausal status, we estimated odds ratios (ORs) adjusted for many individual-level and contextual breast cancer risk factors.We observed positive associations between incident breast cancer and all three measures of NO₂ exposure from 1975 to 1994. In fully adjusted models for premenopausal breast cancer, a 10 ppb increase in NO₂ exposure estimated from the satellite-derived observations, the scaled satellite-derived observations, and the national LUR model produced ORs of 1.26 (95% confidence intervals (CIs): 0.92–1.74), 1.32 (95% CI: 1.05–1.67) and 1.28 (95% CI: 0.92–1.79). For postmenopausal breast cancer, we found corresponding ORs of 1.10 (95% CI: 0.88–1.36), 1.10 (95% CI: 0.94–1.28) and 1.07 (95% CI: 0.86–1.32). Substantial heterogeneity in the ORs was observed across the eight Canadian provinces and reduced ORs were observed when models were restricted to women who had received routine mammography examinations. No associations were found for road proximity measures.This study provides some support for the hypothesis that traffic-related air pollution may be associated with the development of breast cancer, especially in premenopausal women. With the few studies available, further research is clearly needed.     

Annual and diurnal variations of gaseous and particulate pollutants in 31 provincial capital cities based on in situ air quality monitoring data from China National Environmental Monitoring Center

Long-term air quality data with high temporal and spatial resolutions are needed to understand some important processes affecting the air quality and corresponding environmental and health effects. The annual and diurnal variations of each criteria pollutant including PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ (particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 μm and 10 μm, respectively), CO (carbon monoxide), NO₂ (nitrogen dioxide), SO₂ (sulfur dioxide) and O₃ (ozone) in 31 provincial capital cities between April 2014 and March 2015 were investigated by cluster analysis to evaluate current air pollution situations in China, and the cities were classified as severely, moderately, and slightly polluted cities according to the variations. The concentrations of air pollutants in winter months were significantly higher than those in other months with the exception of O₃, and the cities with the highest CO and SO₂ concentrations were located in northern China. The annual variation of PM_2.5 concentrations in northern cities was bimodal with comparable peaks in October 2014 and January 2015, while that in southern China was unobvious with slightly high PM_2.5 concentrations in winter months. The concentrations of particulate matter and trace gases from primary emissions (SO₂ and CO) and NO₂ were low in the afternoon (~ 16:00), while diurnal variation of O₃ concentrations was opposite to that of other pollutants with the highest values in the afternoon. The most polluted cities were mainly located in North China Plain, while slightly polluted cities mostly focus on southern China and the cities with high altitude such as Lasa. This study provides a basis for the formulation of future urban air pollution control measures in China.     

Changing air quality in Delhi,India: determinants,trends, and policy implications

Air pollution is a major environmental problem in urban areas worldwide. Delhi, the capital city of India, is no exception to the universal pattern of deteriorating urban air quality with concentration of pollutants being well above the recommended WHO levels. The magnitude and urgency of the problem as a global environmental issue needs a systematic understanding of the potential causes of pollution and their contribution to air quality. In the present study, ambient air quality data (1987–2006) of SO₂, NO₂, SPM, and RSPM were analyzed to asses the changing air quality in the study area and to evaluate the effect of measures taken to control it. The primary data were collected from 1,583 households to examine the relationship between outdoor and indoor pollution level. Based on the data, the current study concludes that despite the implementation of different pollution-controlling measures, the pollutants, especially the particulate pollutants, were well above the standard limits set by CPCB. Integration between technological and social approach of urban planning is required to mitigate and manage urban environmental problems in sustainable manner.     

Association between long-term exposure to air pollution and mortality in France: A 25-year follow-up study

IntroductionLong-term exposure to air pollution (AP) has been shown to have an impact on mortality in numerous countries, but since 2005 no data exists for France.ObjectivesWe analyzed the association between long-term exposure to air pollution and mortality at the individual level in a large French cohort followed from 1989 to 2013.MethodsThe study sample consisted of 20,327 adults working at the French national electricity and gas company EDF-GDF. Annual exposure to PM₁₀, PM_10–2.5, PM_2.5, NO₂, O₃, SO₂, and benzene was assessed for the place of residence of participants using a chemistry-transport model and taking residential history into account. Hazard ratios were estimated using a Cox proportional-hazards regression model, adjusted for selected individual and contextual risk factors. Hazard ratios were computed for an interquartile range (IQR) increase in air pollutant concentrations.ResultsThe cohort recorded 1967 non-accidental deaths. Long-term exposures to baseline PM_2.5, PM_10-25, NO₂ and benzene were associated with an increase in non-accidental mortality (Hazard Ratio, HR = 1.09; 95% CI: 0.99, 1.20 per 5.9 μg/m³, PM_10-25; HR = 1.09;95% CI: 1.04, 1.15 per 2.2 μg/m³, NO₂: HR = 1.14; 95% CI: 0.99, 1.31 per 19.3 μg/m³ and benzene: HR = 1.10; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.22 per 1.7 μg/m³).The strongest association was found for PM₁₀: HR = 1.14; 95% CI: 1.05, 1.25 per 7.8 μg/m³. PM₁₀, PM_10-25 and SO₂ were associated with non-accidental mortality when using time varying exposure. No significant associations were observed between air pollution and cardiovascular and respiratory mortality.ConclusionLong-term exposure to fine particles, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and benzene is associated with an increased risk of non-accidental mortality in France. Our results strengthen existing evidence that outdoor air pollution is a significant environmental risk factor for mortality. Due to the limited sample size and the nature of our study (occupational), further investigations are needed in France with a larger representative population sample.     

Modeling indoor air pollution of outdoor origin in homes of SAPALDIA subjects in Switzerland

Given the shrinking spatial contrasts in outdoor air pollution in Switzerland and the trends toward tightly insulated buildings, the Swiss Cohort Study on Air Pollution and Lung and Heart Diseases in Adults (SAPALDIA) needs to understand to what extent outdoor air pollution remains a determinant for residential indoor exposure. The objectives of this paper are to identify determining factors for indoor air pollution concentrations of particulate matter (PM), ultrafine particles in the size range from 15 to 300 nm, black smoke measured as light absorbance of PM (PM_absorbance) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and to develop predictive indoor models for SAPALDIA. Multivariable regression models were developed based on indoor and outdoor measurements among homes of selected SAPALDIA participants in three urban (Basel, Geneva, Lugano) and one rural region (Wald ZH) in Switzerland, various home characteristics and reported indoor sources such as cooking. Outdoor levels of air pollutants were important predictors for indoor air pollutants, except for the coarse particle fraction. The fractions of outdoor concentrations infiltrating indoors were between 30% and 66%, the highest one was observed for PM_absorbance. A modifying effect of open windows was found for NO₂ and the ultrafine particle number concentration. Cooking was associated with increased particle and NO₂ levels. This study shows that outdoor air pollution remains an important determinant of residential indoor air pollution in Switzerland.     

The relationship between population and the environment and its impact on sustainable development in Egypt using a multi-equation model

The relationship between population and the environment is a significant issue due to its impact on chances for achieving sustainable development, especially in developing countries. Previous studies on this relationship have primarily focused on the impact of population growth on the environment, while the impact of the environment on population has received less attention, where most of these studies have used single-equation models (SEM) in their analysis. In order to capture the interrelationship between population growth and the environment, and both its direct and indirect effects on the potential for achieving sustainable development, SEM may not be appropriate. This paper takes a step forward in providing such empirical evidence, by developing a multi-equation model based on the recursive equation system in order to empirically examine the relationship between population growth and the environment in terms of air pollution represented by increased CO₂ emissions, health level represented by the mortality and morbidity due to air pollution, and labour productivity represented by GDP per hour worked, and using a time series data set for Egypt during the period of 1950–2010. Quantitatively, the current study finds that (1) In Egypt, a 1% increase in population raises the CO₂ emissions by 2.4%. (2) An increase in CO₂ emissions by 1% is associated with an increase in deaths due to outdoor air pollution (respiratory and cardiovascular diseases) by 2.5%. (3) Poor health due to air pollution leads to a decrease in labour productivity by 1.58%. (4) The impact of population growth on chances for sustainable development depends on how much the rise in air pollution decreases labour productivity through raising the rate of morbidity. (5) Even when rapid population growth rate plays a minor role in creating a specific problem, such as its indirect negative impact on labour productivity and thus economic growth, population management policies may still constitute a viable measure for dealing with that problem, especially with respect to policy intervention cost. The study argues that population growth in Egypt negatively affects the state’s ability to achieve sustainable development via its negative impact on the environment. Environmental degradation in turn leads to adverse effects on population, particularly with regard to public health. These negative effects on health lead to lower labour productivity, and thus hinder the state’s ability to sustain development.     

Traffic-related air pollution and hyperactivity/inattention,dyslexia and dyscalculia in adolescents of the German GINIplus and LISAplus birth cohorts

BackgroundFew studies have examined the link between air pollution exposure and behavioural problems and learning disorders during late childhood and adolescence.ObjectivesTo determine whether traffic-related air pollution exposure is associated with hyperactivity/inattention, dyslexia and dyscalculia up to age 15 years using the German GINIplus and LISAplus birth cohorts (recruitment 1995–1999).MethodsHyperactivity/inattention was assessed using the German parent-completed (10 years) and self-completed (15 years) Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Responses were categorized into normal versus borderline/abnormal. Parent-reported dyslexia and dyscalculia (yes/no) at age 10 and 15 years were defined using parent-completed questionnaires. Individual-level annual average estimates of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), particulate matter (PM)₁₀ mass, PM_2.5 mass and PM_2.5 absorbance concentrations were assigned to each participant's birth, 10 year and 15 year home address. Longitudinal associations between the air pollutants and the neurodevelopmental outcomes were assessed using generalized estimation equations, separately for both study areas, and combined in a random-effects meta-analysis. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals are given per interquartile range increase in pollutant concentration.ResultsThe prevalence of abnormal/borderline hyperactivity/inattention scores and parental-reported dyslexia and dyscalculia at 15 years of age was 12.9%, 10.5% and 3.4%, respectively, in the combined population (N = 4745). In the meta- analysis, hyperactivity/inattention was associated with PM_2.5 mass estimated to the 10 and 15 year addresses (1.12 [1.01, 1.23] and 1.11 [1.01, 1.22]) and PM_2.5 absorbance estimated to the 10 and 15 year addresses (1.14 [1.05, 1.25] and 1.13 [1.04, 1.23], respectively).ConclusionsWe report associations suggesting a potential link between air pollution exposure and hyperactivity/inattention scores, although these findings require replication.