Stakeholder Perceptions of Scientists: Lake Tahoe Environmental Policy from 1984 to 2001

What factors explain stakeholders’ perceptions of scientists in environmental politics? Questionnaire data are used to examine stakeholders’ views of scientific experts in the context of Lake Tahoe environmental policy from 1984 to 2001. Stakeholders’ perceptions of scientists have remained the same over time – despite a shift from adversarial to collaborative policymaking and after decades of mounting scientific evidence showing water quality declines. On average, stakeholders perceive scientists with limited influence on Lake Tahoe environmental policy and view them with mixed levels of skepticism. Stakeholders’ evaluation of scientists is best explained by their beliefs about development versus the environment. Stakeholders in favor of more land development express distrust of scientists and negatively evaluate university researchers and consultants. Stakeholders in favor of environmental protection are more likely to trust scientists and positively evaluate university researchers and consultants.     

International oil market – new directions

This article focuses on changes in the international petroleum industry during the past 20 years and examines some major trends, especially since the oil price collapse of 1986. The resumption of rapid increases in oil demand since 1986 in the developed market economies and the developing world has already led to a pronounced production shift to OPEC member countries where output increased by 6.6 million barrels per day or, 37% since 1985. Cutbacks in petroleum investments in non-OPEC countries are likely to result in even more dependence on the vast proved oil reserves of OPEC. However, the gap between peak output and sustainable production capacities in OPEC has narrowed and there is an urgent need for sizeable investments to expand capacities. Such investment programmes are already being implemented by transnational oil corporations in countries such as Indonesia and Nigeria where the companies had retained equity participation. In other countries such as Iraq and Venezuela where oil operations had been nationalized, transnational oil corporations are being invited to participate in new arrangements for oil production. New arrangements are also being considered in Eastern Europe and the USSR. New understandings, dialogue and cooperation between oil-consuming and producing countries will be necessary for the security of investments, supplies and markets in this process. The unanswered question is whether such cooperation can be achieved in time in order to avoid yet another energy crisis.     

World diamond industry: 1970–2000

The diamond cartel has remained effective in controlling diamond supplies and prices for a longer period than any other major minerals cartel in the twentieth century. This paper examines the diamond pipeline from mine to the jewellery market. Particular attention is given to the characteristics of diamonds and of the industry structure that make the long-term stability of the cartel possible. The strategies of De Beers Consolidated Diamond Mines in controlling rough gem supplies and prices are examined, and projections are made to 2000. The paper shows that in spite of a projected decrease in the share of total diamond production sold through the De Beers' cartel in the 1990s, the cartel is expected to continue effectively to control supplies and prices.     

China's Minerals Future: 1985–2005

China has embarked on major economic and social changes to revitalize the Chinese economy, increase labor productivity, and improve the material standard of living of the Chinese people. This paper assumes that China will achieve its goal of a per capita income of US$800 in 2000, open-door policies will be maintained, and nonfuel mineral commodity consumption will increase as GDP per capita increases. Projections are made of production, trade and consumption of 14 nonfuel minerals for the period 1985–2005. China is projected to increase its net imports to these 14 minerals from about US$5000 million in 1985 to about US$12000 million in constant dollars in 2005. China's investment climate will become more favorable for those multinational companies that bring with them clear comparative advantages in minerals exploration, mining and processing technologies and marketing, and are prepared to develop in-depth Chinese expertise.     

Change in vegetation cover in East Timor, 1989–1999

Forest resources play a key role and provide many basic needs to communities in developing economies. To assess the patterns of vegetation cover change, as a corollary of resource utilization, satellite imagery, ground truth data, and image processing techniques can be useful. This article is concerned with identifying change in major vegetation types in East Timor between 1989 and 1999, using Landsat Thematic Mapper data. The results highlight a significant level of deforestation and decline in foliage cover. All major vegetation cover types declined from 1989 to 1999, and there was a sizeable increase in degraded woodlands. This decline has had considerable impact on the livelihoods of rural and urban communities. Causes for these changes include: economic exploitation of abundant resources; and implications of transmigration policies implemented during Indonesian rule, resulting in increased competition for land and woodland resources. As the new nation of Timor‐Leste establishes itself, it must consider its current stock and distribution of natural capital to ensure that development efforts are geared towards sustainable outcomes. Without the knowledge of historical patterns of resource consumption, development efforts may, unwittingly, lead to continuing decline in forest resources.     

The sense of snow – Individuals’ perception of fatal avalanche events

This empirical paper aims at examining individuals’ risk perception in the context of an environmental disaster. Risk is defined as probability of dying in a snow avalanche. Risk perception is analyzed from two different perspectives: (i) individuals’ estimate of the average avalanche risk and (ii) the perceived personal avalanche risk. The perception of personal risk is summarized in an ordered categorical variable, average risk perception is captured by a measurement previously used in risk communication that results in a continuous variable. The variation in risk perception observed is examined by using individual leisure activities (skiing) and the timing of the survey (fall vs. winter) as proxies for frequency, familiarity, controllability, voluntariness, and beneficiary of risk exposure and by including several individual specific characteristics such as age, gender, education, income. The results show that risk as well as individual specific characteristics are significant determinants of participants’ perception of risk but their relevance differs depending on whether the focus is on perception of average risk or of personal risk.     

India—Energy Supply Policy and Management

The sources of energy utilized in India range from nuclear power to non-commercial fuels such as agricultural wastes, which still meet some 45% of the country's total energy demand. India has to import 65% of the oil consumed, although it is self-sufficient with respect to all other forms of energy. While the author feels that in the long run energy supplies for India will have to come from new and renewable sources of energy, during the transition period (the next 20–30 years) energy demand can be met only by further development of domestic sources of coal, oil and hydroelectricity. Les sources énergétiques employées en Inde vont de l'énergie nucléaire jusqu'aux fuels non-commerciaux, tels que les déchets agricoles, lesquels entrent pour 45% environ dans la consommation d'énergie du pays. L'Inde doit importer 65 pour cent du pétrole qu'elle consomme, mais elle se suffit à elle-même pour ce qui concerne toutes les autres formes d'énergie. Bien que l'auteur pense, qu'à long terme, l'Inde doit faire appel pour satisfaire ses besoins à des sources nouvelles et renouvelables d'énergie, elle devra durant la période de transition (les prochaines 20 à 30 années) s'adresser au développement des sources domestiques que sont le charbon, le pétrole et la houille blanche. Las fuentes de energía utilizadas en la India incluyen desde energía nuclear hasta combustibles no comerciales, tales como residuos agrícolas, que cubren algo así como el 45 porciento de la demanda total de energía del país. La India tiene que importar el 65% del consumo de petróleo, pero éste es un país auto-abastecido con respecto a todas las otras formas de energía. El autor piensa que mientras a largo plazo el suministro de energía para la India debería provenir de fuentes nuevas y renovables, durante el periodo de transición (próximos 20–30 an?os) la demanda de energía solamente puede ser abastecida a través de un desarrollo de fuentes domésticas de carbón, petróleo e hidroelectricidad.     

UNITED NATIONS MINERAL EXPLORATION ACTIVITIES: 1960–1976

The United Nations Development Programme plays an important role in strengthening the economies of developing countries through mineral exploration projects, training in geosciences and institution building. This review demonstrates the effectiveness of such activities, both in terms of the economic value of mineral discoveries, and the less tangible, long-term contribution through development of infrastructure and skills, introduction of modern technology, and building up a body of reliable information as a base for future planning of mineral resources development.     

THE EVOLUTION OF INDONESIAN HARD-MINERAL AGREEMENTS, 1967–1977

This article traces the evolution of contractual terms for hard minerals agreements in Indonesia over the period 1967–1977. It shows that, with some important exceptions, the Indonesian experience has been more or less consonant with that of other developing countries that are mineral exporters. Virtually everywhere, contract terms, particularly fiscal provisions, have been considerably tightened as host countries gained experience in negotiating and implementing hard mineral agreements. As a result, recent contracts involve measurably greater benefits for host countries than was generally the case in the 1960s. For a variety of reasons discussed in the article, the evolution to tighter contracts and more favourable terms was rapid in Indonesia. The article also demonstrates the essential equivalence between the two most prevalent forms of mineral agreements: the production-sharing contract and the contract of work. In particular, and contrary to widespread belief, the article shows, using Indonesian examples, that a contract of work can be made to match production-sharing agreements in its financial results. Le présent article retrace l'évolution des clauses contractuelles des accords sur les minéraux solides en Indonésie pour la période 1967–1977. Il montre que, à quelques exceptions importantes près, l'expérience faite par I'lndonésie dans ce domaine est fort proche de celle d'autres pays en développement exportateurs de minéraux. On assiste presque partout à un resserrement considerable des clauses contractuelles et, en particulier, des dispositions fiscales au moment où les pays hôtes acquièrent de l'experience en matière de négociations et d'exécution des accords sur les minéraux solides. En conséquence, les récents contracts ont apporté des bénéfices bien plus appréciables aux pays nôtes qu'ils ne l'ont fait généralement dans les années 60. Pour de multiples raisons exposées dans cet article, l'évolution de contrats plus stricts et de clauses plus favorables s'est avérée rapide en Indonésie. Cet article démontre également l'équivalence essentielle qui existe entre les deux formes les plus courantes d'accords sur les minéraux: des contrats de partage de la production et des contrats de travail. En particulier, et contrairement à ce que l'on pense généralement, cet article, par le biais d'exemples indonésiens, prouve qu'un contrat de travail peut s'harmoniser avec des accords de partage de la production quant à ses résultats financiers. Este artículo examina la evolución de los términos contractuales de los acuerdos sobre minerales en Indonesia durante el periodo 1967–1977. Este exámen muestra que, con algunas excepciones importantes, la experiencia de Indonesia ha sido similar a la de otros países en desarrollo exportadores de minerales. Casi en todas partes los términos contractuales, especialmente las provisiones fiscales, han tendido a ser restrictivas a medida que los países exportadores han ido adquiriendo experiencia en las negociaciones y ejecución de contratos sobre minerales. En consecuencia, los contratos recientes representan mejores beneficios para el país exportador en comparación a lo que sucedía en la década del sesenta. Debido a diferentes razones que se discuten en este artículo, la evolución hacia contratos más restrictivos y términos más favorables fué muy rápida en Indonesia. Este artículo también demuestra la equivalencia esencial entre las dos formas prevalentes de contratos sobre minerales: contratos de participación en la producción y contratos de trabajo. En especial, y contrariamente a la creencia general, el artículo muestra, usando el ejemplo de Indonesia, que el contrato de trabajo puede adecuarse de modo a obtener los mismos resultados financieros obtenibles con contratos de participación en la producción.