The impact of domestic wood burning on personal, indoor and outdoor levels of 1,3-butadiene, benzene, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde

The aim of this study was to quantify personal exposure and indoor levels of the suspected or known carcinogenic compounds 1,3-butadiene, benzene, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde in a small Swedish town where wood burning for space heating is common. Subjects (wood burners, n = 14), living in homes with daily use of wood-burning appliances were compared with referents (n = 10) living in the same residential area. Personal exposure and stationary measurements indoors and at an ambient site were performed with diffusive samplers for 24 h. In addition, 7 day measurements of 1,3-butadiene and benzene were performed inside and outside the homes. Wood burners had significantly higher median personal exposure to 1,3-butadiene (0.18 microg m(-3)) compared with referents (0.12 microg m(-3)), which was also reflected in the indoor levels. Significantly higher indoor levels of benzene were found in the wood-burning homes (3.0 microg m(-3)) compared with the reference homes (1.5 microg m(-3)). With regard to aldehydes, median levels obtained from personal and indoor measurements were similar although the four most extreme acetaldehyde levels were all found in wood burners. High correlations were found between personal and indoor levels for all substances (r(s) > 0.8). In a linear regression model, type of wood-burning appliance, burning time and number of wood replenishments were significant factors for indoor levels of 1,3-butadiene. Domestic wood burning seems to increase personal exposure to 1,3-butadiene as well as indoor levels of 1,3-butadiene and benzene and possibly also acetaldehyde. The cancer risk from these compounds at exposure to wood smoke is, however, estimated to be low in developed countries.     

Human health risk assessment of heavy metals in a replaced urban industrial area of Qingdao,China

The aim of this study was risk characterization of a replaced urban industrial land located north of Qingdao, in relation to heavy metals values. Soil concentrations of Cd, Pb, Cu, Ni, Cr, and Zn were analyzed. It was observed that the components of Cd, Pb, Cu, Ni, Cr, and Zn are about 2.22, 8.07, 4.70, 6.81, 2.65, and 3.0-folds, respectively, when compared with the local natural background values in Qingdao. The spatial distribution of heavy metals indicated that these hotspots for Cr and Zn located in the southwestern part, Ni and Cd in the middle of the south area, Pb in the northwest, and Cu in the middle of the east area. The values of pollution index and Nemerow integrated pollution index revealed that 100 % of soil samples were moderately or heavily contaminated by six heavy metals. From these results, human health risk assessment for sensitive population was performed according to two different land uses. For non-carcinogenic risk, the direct oral ingestion appeared to be the main exposure pathway followed by dermal and inhalation absorption. The HI values of Pb and Cr characterized for children were larger than 1, while HI values of each metal for adults in two scenarios were lower than 1. Besides, carcinogenic risk from inhalation exposure to Cr for children and adults in two scenarios all exceeded the safety limit.     

Impacts of lead/zinc mining and smelting on the environment and human health in China

Mining and smelting are important economic activities. However, mining-related industries are also some of the largest sources of environmental pollution from heavy metals. China is one of the largest producers and consumers of lead and zinc in the world. A large amount of lead, zinc, and related elements, such as cadmium, have been released into the environment due to mineral processing activities and have impacted water resources, soils, vegetables, and crops. In some areas, this pollution is hazardous to human health. This article reviews studies published in the past 10 years (2000–2009), on the environmental and human health consequences of lead/zinc mineral exploitation in China. Polluted areas are concentrated in the following areas: the junction of Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan provinces, west-central Hunan province, central Guangxi province, northern Guangdong, northwestern Henan province, the border between Shanxi and Gansu provinces, and the region of Liaoning province near Bohai. Lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) are the main pollutants and are associated with human health effects such as high lead blood levels in children, arthralgia, osteomalacia, and excessive cadmium in urine.     

Observation of volatile and semi-volatile carbonyls in an Algerian urban environment using dinitrophenylhydrazine/silica-HPLC and pentafluorophenylhydrazine/silica-GC-MS

Lower carbonyls and n-alkanals from C5 to C10 were measured from late autumn 2000 to summer 2001 in two urban areas in the Algerian territory: Algiers and Ouargla. They were collected on silica cartridges coated with dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH) and pentafluorophenylhydrazine (PFPH), which were analysed by HPLC-UV and high-resolution GC-MS. respectively. The two methods were used in parallel samplings in a suburban Algiers site and provided consistent results for semi-volatile congeners, as differences in the concentration data did not exceed 21% on average for individual carbonyl levels ranging from 0.0 to 0.5-2.6 microg m(-3). Concentrations of formaldehyde up to 27 and 5 microg m(-3) were monitored during 10 h samplings in the daytime in Algiers and Ouargla, respectively; acetaldehyde reached values of 13 and 5 microg m(-3), whilst acetone was the most abundant ketone with peak levels of 14 and 4 microg m(-3), respectively. High night-time levels of lower carbonyls were also measured at both locations. Among the semi-volatile alkanals, the highest levels were observed in suburban Algiers for hexanal and nonanal (2.2 microg m(-3)) and in downtown Algiers for valeraldehyde (2.6 microg m(-3)), whilst in Ouargla only hexanal and nonanal levels within the C5-C10 fraction exceeded 1 microg m(-3). Moreover, benzaldehyde concentrations as high as 5 microg m(-3) were measured in the centre of Algiers. Algiers data are comparable with those found in photochemically polluted urban areas of Europe and the USA. Strong correlations between formaldehyde and acetaldehyde and between formaldehyde and benzaldehyde were observed; by contrast, acetone did not show any correlation with the lower aldehydes, suggesting the existence of carbonyl sources other than vehicular traffic. Diurnal variations of almost all carbonyls suggested that motor vehicles were the most important source in the winter, whereas photochemical production appeared to predominate during the summer.     

Towards a holistic approach for the urban environment and its impact on energy utilisation in buildings: the ATREUS project

Enhanced urbanisation and its impact on the urban climate have a significant impact on the energy behaviour of buildings. Rising standards in indoor environmental quality lead to higher energy consumption values for heating, ventilation and air-conditioning purposes. ATREUS is a research and training network launched recently aiming to cover some of these aspects to enable a better understanding of the phenomena as well as providing high quality training for young European researchers. Having completed one year of work, some indicative results of the approach used within ATREUS have already produced both methodological approaches and combinatorial case studies; an example of the latter, based on the Thessaloniki experiment and the results produced by an extended field survey, will be discussed.     

Assessment of potential health risk for inhabitants living near a former lead smelter. Part 2: site-specific human health risk assessment of Cd and Pb contamination in kitchen gardens

Metal contamination of urban soils and homegrown products has caused major concern. In Part 1, we investigated the long-term effects of a former smelter on the degree of kitchen garden-soil contamination and the quality of the homegrown vegetables from these gardens. The results showed that the soils retained a high level of contamination and that a large proportion of the vegetables produced did not comply with the legislation on the levels of metals allowed for human consumption. The present study aims to assess the associated potential health risk to local inhabitants through consumption of homegrown vegetables and ingestion of soil particles using a land use-based approach. For lead (Pb), the standard hazard quotient (HQ)-based risk assessment method was used to determine the HQ. For cadmium (Cd), the approach consisted of calculating the HQs and then deriving site-specific assessment criteria (SSAC) using the SNIFFER method. The results suggested that the exposure pathways considered should not engender any form of deleterious health effects for adults. For children, Pb was the main concern and induced a relatively high health risk through soil particle ingestion, and most total soil Cd concentrations exceeded the derived SSAC, in particular, through consumption of vegetables. The metal bioaccessibility in soils was incorporated into the methods to establish more realistic risk assessment measures. This study proposes an approach to integrate different human health risk assessment methods. Further investigations should complete the assessment to improve risk determination, e.g., the determination of metal bioaccessibility in vegetables.     

Bacteriological safety assessment,hygienic habits and cross-contamination risks in a Nigerian urban sample of household kitchen environment

Urban household kitchen environment was assessed for safety by determining their levels of indicator bacteria, hygienic habits and risk of cross-contamination. Household kitchens (60) were selected in Warri Town, Nigeria, by the multi-stage sampling technique. Contact surfaces, water and indoor kitchen air were analysed for aerobic plate counts, total and faecal coliforms using Nutrient and McConkey media by swab/rinse method, membrane filtration and sedimentation methods, respectively. Hygienic habits and risk of cross-contamination were assessed with structured questionnaire which included socio-demographic variables. On the basis of median counts, the prevalence of high counts (log cfu/cm²/m³/100 mL) of aerobic plate counts (>3.0), total coliforms (>1.0) and faecal coliforms (>0) on contact surfaces and air was high (58.0–92.0%), but low in water (30.0–40.0%). Pots, plates and cutleries were the contact surfaces with low counts. Prevalence of poor hygienic habits and high risk of cross-contamination was 38.6 and 67.5%, respectively. Education, occupation and kitchen type were associated with cross-contamination risk (P = 0.002–0.022), while only education was associated with hygienic habits (P = 0.03). Cross-contamination risk was related (P = 0.01–0.05) to aerobic plate counts (OR 2.30; CL 1.30–3.17), total coliforms (OR 5.63; CL 2.76–8.25) and faecal coliforms (OR 4.24; CL 2.87–6.24), while hygienic habit was not. It can be concluded that urban household kitchens in the Nigerian setting are vulnerable to pathogens likely to cause food-borne infections.     

Comparison of exhaled carbon monoxide levels among commuters and roadside vendors in an urban and a suburban population in Pakistan

Carbon monoxide (CO) is one of the six criteria air pollutants related to urbanization and has a wide range of health effects. The study measured and compared the exhaled CO levels among commuters and roadside vendors in potentially heavy and low traffic volume areas of Karachi, a megacity in Pakistan. Saddar town [areas of M. A. Jinnah Road (Tibet Center, Denso Hall) and Empress Market] was selected to represent an area of high traffic volume and the suburban town of Gadap (Gadap and Gulshan-e-Maymar) was selected to represent an area of no or low traffic volume. The study compared the CO exposure of commuters and roadside vendors in high and low traffic volume in Karachi. CO exposure was measured in expired air using the breath analyzer module of Bacharach Monoxor-II, USA. A total of 326 individuals (115 commuters and 211 stationary roadside vendors) from Saddar town (n?=?193) and Gadap town (n?=?133) were selected. In addition, CO levels in ambient air in the same areas, using portable CO analyzer (Bacharach, Monoxor-II, USA), were measured. The mean ambient CO level at Saddar town was 15.6 (SE ± 2.6) ppm compared to 3.3 (SE ± 0.3) ppm at Gadap town. The mean CO level in expired air was significantly higher among nonsmokers at Saddar town (12.8 ± 0.5 ppm) compared to the nonsmokers at Gadap town (7.8 ± 0.4 ppm). The mean CO level in expired air among smokers was twice that of nonsmokers (21.6 vs. 10.6 ppm). CO in expired air was greater among high traffic volume commuters and roadside stationary population in Karachi, Pakistan. The population in Karachi is exposed to high concentration of air pollutants. These pollutants need to be characterized for health effects and interventions needs to be developed.     

Influence of aerosol spectrum and air pollutants on fog formation in urban environment of megacity Delhi, India

Urban areas are facing increasing fog frequencies that may result due to increased air pollution emanating from variety of sources. The increased pollution levels may lead to the atmospheric reactions resulting into the formation of secondary pollutants that may also lead to increased aerosol number concentrations (ANC) in the atmosphere. This could cause enhanced water aerosols in the presence of favourable meteorological conditions and high relative humidity. This study deals with the atmospheric pollution and visibility during winter season of megacity Delhi in order to assess the relationship between the two specifically during fog episodes. Thus, this study analyses the levels of air pollutants, aerosol spectrum and meteorological conditions during one week each in the winter season of the years 2004 and 2006 in order to have an improved understanding of their role in fog formation in mega-city Delhi. More than 300 h of measurements which included episodes of dense, thick and moderate fogs of about 25 h, were studied. The measurements cover most of the accumulation mode and greater size spectrum of aerosols. Thus, the analysis is performed for the entire period, specifically, before the fog sets up, during and afterwards. In general, the relatively small variations in number concentration show larger variations in visibility prior and post dense fog formation than during dense fog episodes. Preliminary analysis of monthly averaged RSPM (Respirable Suspended particulate Matter or PM(10)) concentration values for four winter months for a period of 6 years (1996-2001) and visibility did not show a good correlation with total occurrences of fog. However, daily averaged RSPM concentration showed a good correlation with the occurrences of thick fog. Diurnal variation of Sulfur-dioxide and Nitrogen dioxide were found to have inverse relationship with visibility during fog which may be due to formation of secondary pollutants such as sulfate and to a lesser extent nitrates. Amongst, the daily averaged concentrations of all the criteria pollutants, RSPM was found to be best correlated with the fog in comparison to other pollutants.     

Effect of dibenzopyrene measurement on assessing air quality in Beijing air and possible implications for human health

Size fractionated particulate matter (PM) was collected in summer and winter from Beijing, China for the characterization of an expanded list of PAHs and evaluation of air pollution metrics. Summertime ΣPAHs on PM was 14.6 ± 29(PM 1.5), 0.88 ± 0.49(PM 1.5-7.2) and 0.29 ± 0.076(PM 7.2) ng m(-3) air while wintertime concentrations were 493 ± 206(PM 1.5), 26.7 ± 14(PM 1.5-7.2) and 5.3 ± 2.5(PM 7.2) ng m(-3) air. Greater than 90% of the carcinogenic PAHs were concentrated on PM(1.5). Dibenzopyrene isomers made up a significant portion (～30%) of the total carcinogenic PAH load during the winter. To our knowledge, this is the first report of dibenzopyrenes in the Beijing atmosphere and among the few studies that report these highly potent PAHs in ambient particulate matter. Lifetime risk calculations indicated that 1 out of 10,000 to over 6 out of 100 Beijing residents may have an increased risk of lung cancer due to PAH concentration. Over half of the lifetime risk was attributed to Σdibenzopyrenes. The World Health Organization and Chinese daily PM(10) standard was exceeded on each day of the study, however, PAH limits were only exceeded during the winter. The outcomes of the air pollution metrics were highly dependent on the individual PAHs measured and seasonal variation.     

Potential health risk of arsenic and cadmium in groundwater near Xiangjiang River, China: a case study for risk assessment and management of toxic substances

As part of our efforts to find effective methods to the drinking water risk management, the health risk assessment of arsenic and cadmium in groundwater near Xiangjiang River was analyzed. The results suggest that although the arsenic and cadmium concentrations in 97% of groundwater sources are less than the requirement of Water Quality Standards for Drinking Water (GB5749-2006) in China, the residents served by almost all of the investigated centralized drinking water sources have a significant potential health risk by consumption, especially cancer risk. It is justified through analyses that risk assessment is an effective tool for risk management, and the maximum permissible concentration of arsenic and cadmium in drinking water (0.01 and 0.005?mg L^-1, respectively) is suitable for China at present, considering the current economic status of China. Risk managers develop cleanup standards designed to protect against all possible adverse effects, which should take into account highly exposed individuals, effects of mixtures of toxic substances, attendant uncertainties, and other factors such as site-specific (or generic) criteria, technical feasibility, cost?Cbenefit analyses, and sociopolitical concerns.     

Application of passive sampling on assessment of concentration distribution and health risk of volatile organic compounds at a high-tech science park

The objectives of this study are to investigate the volatile organic compound (VOC) distribution using passive samplers and to assess the resulting health risks in a high-tech science industrial park. With the advantages of passive sampling techniques, long-term and wide-area samples are collected. The results show TVOC concentrations in summer, fall, winter, and spring are 7.14?±?5.66 ppb, 18.17?±?5.81 ppb, 10.30?±?3.54 ppb, and 14.56?±?4.53 ppb, respectively; those on weekdays and weekends are 14.36?±?6.80 ppb and 9.87?±?4.86 ppb, respectively; and those in industrial and residential zones are 12.97?±?0.39 ppb and 11.13?±?0.68 ppb, respectively. Based on concentration variations, and benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene ratios, we can resolve the source origins. Health risks are assessed based on the resulting concentrations. In the case of non-cancer chronic effects, long-term exposure to these concentrations does not support there is a risk of adverse health effects. However, potential cancer risks of exposure to these concentrations may occur, especially to carbon tetrachloride and benzene. By applying this study’s procedures, information on VOC concentration distribution, source identification, and health assessment can be obtained and they are applicable to similar studies.     

Fluoride and health hazards: community perception in a fluorotic area of central Rajasthan (India): an arid environment

India is among the 23 nations around the globe where health problems occur due to excess ingestion of fluoride (>1.5 mg/l) by drinking water. In Rajasthan, 18 out of 32 districts are fluorotic and 11 million of the populations are at risk. An exploratory qualitative survey was conducted to describe perception of the community regarding fluoride and related health problems in Central Rajasthan. A study on distribution and health hazards by fluoride contaminate in groundwater was performed in 1,030 villages of Bhilwara district of Central Rajasthan. One thousand thirty water samples were collected and analyzed for fluoride concentration. Fluoride concentration in these villages varies from 0.2 to 13.0 mg/l. Seven hundred fifty-six (73.4%) villages have fluoride concentration above 1.0 mg/l. Sixty (5.83%) villages have fluoride concentration above 5.0 mg/l with maximum numbers (24, 19.5%) from Shahpura tehsil. A detailed fluorosis study was carried out in 41 villages out of 60 villages having fluoride above 5.0 mg/l in the study age, sex, and occupation data were also collected. Four thousand, two hundred fifty-two individuals above 5 years age were examined for the evidence of dental fluorosis, while 1998 individuals above 21 years were examined for the evidence of skeletal fluorosis. The overall prevalence of dental and skeletal fluorosis was found to be 3,270/4,252 (76.9%) and 949/1,998 (47.5%), respectively. Maximum of 23.9% (1,016) individuals have mild grade of Dean’s classification. Three hundred seventy-four (8.8%) individuals have severe type of dental fluorosis. The Dean’s Community Fluorosis Index for the studied area in total is 1.62. Maximum CFI 3.0 was recorded from Surajpura of Banera Tehsil. Five hundred sixty-six (28.3%) individuals have Grade I type of skeletal fluorosis while only 0.6% (12) individuals have Grade III skeletal fluorosis. In conclusion, the prevalence and severity of fluorosis increased with increasing fluoride concentration. It was interesting to note that in some villages, the prevalence and severity of fluorosis were highest in subjects belonging to the economically poor community. Similarly, male laborers showed highest prevalence of fluorosis. Prevalence and severity of fluorosis were observed higher in subjects using tobacco, bettle nuts, and alcoholic drinks. In contrast, subjects using citrus fruits and having good nutritional status showed low prevalence.     

Assessment of potential health risk for inhabitants living near a former lead smelter. Part 1: metal concentrations in soils, agricultural crops, and homegrown vegetables

Soil contamination by metals engenders important environmental and health problems in northern France where a smelter (Metaleurop Nord) was in activity for more than a century. This study aims to look at the long-term effects of the smelter after its closedown by combining data on the degree of soil contamination and the quality of the crops grown (agricultural crops and homegrown vegetables) in these soils for a better assessment of the local population’s exposure to Cd, Pb, and Zn. Seven years after the Metaleurop Nord closedown, (1) the agricultural and urban topsoils were strongly contaminated by Cd, Pb, and Zn; (2) the kitchen garden topsoils were even more polluted than the agricultural soils, with great variability in metal concentrations within the gardens studied; (3) a high proportion of the agricultural crops for foodstuffs did not conform with the European legislation; (4) for feedstuffs, most samples did not exceed the Cd and Pb legislation limits, indicating that feedstuffs may be an opportunity for most agricultural produce; and (5) a high proportion of the vegetables produced in the kitchen gardens did not conform with the European foodstuff legislation. The high contamination level of the soils studied continues to be a risk for the environment and the population’s health. A further investigation (part 2) assesses the associated potential health risk for local inhabitants through consumption of homegrown vegetables and ingestion of soil particles by estimating the site-specific human health assessment criteria for Cd and Pb.     

Persistence and risk assessment of spiromesifen on tomato in India: a multilocational study

Supervised field trials were conducted at four different agro-climatic locations of India to evaluate the dissipation pattern and risk assessment of spiromesifen on tomato. Spiromesifen 240 SC was sprayed on tomato at 150 and 300 g a.i.?ha^?1. Samples of tomato fruits were drawn at 0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 10 and 15 days after treatment and soil at 15 days after treatment. Quantification of residues was done on gas chromatograph–mass spectrophotometer in selective ion monitoring mode in the mass range of 271–274 (m/z). The limit of quantification of the method was found to be 0.05 mg kg^?1, while the limit of determination was 0.015 mg kg^?1. Residues were found below the LOQ of 0.05 mg kg^?1 in 10 days at both the doses of application at all the locations. Spiromesifen dissipated with a half-life of 0.93–1.38 days at the recommended rate of application and 1.04–1.34 days at the double the rate of application. Residues of spiromesifen in soil were detectable level (<0.05 mg kg^?1) after 15 days of treatment. A preharvest interval (PHI) of 1 day has been recommended on tomato on the basis of data generated under All India Network Project on Pesticide Residues. Spiromesifen 240 SC has been registered for its use on tomato by Central Insecticide Board and Registration Committee, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. The maximum residue limit (MRL) of spiromesifen on tomato has been fixed by Food Safety Standard Authority of India, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India as 0.3 μg/g after its risk assessment.     

Bark removal and population structure of Taxus wallichiana Zucc. in a temperate mixed conifer forest of western Himalaya

Taxus wallichiana Zucc. (Himalayan yew) represents one of the most threatened medicinal tree species of the Himalayan region. Heavy exploitation of its bark and leaves for taxol® has resulted in decline in its population. Generating quantitative information on Himalayan yew has therefore been stressed. The present paper provides information on the population and bark removal of Himalayan yew from one of the interior areas of Himalaya. Total count and quadrat method were deployed to generate quantitative information on its population while bark removal was estimated based on depth and extent of bark removed. After analyzing the existing information and the results of the study, a rapid vulnerability assessment (RVA) of the species was carried out. Taxus reported a density of 72 individuals/ha and was present as an under canopy of Picea smithiana. Complete stripping of bark was observed in 11 % of the Taxus population which amounted to ca. 18,152.86 cm³ of bark removed. The age class distribution showed complete absence of seedlings and saplings. RVA scores also reported higher values (26) thereby pointing toward the high vulnerability of this species. Across its entire distributional range, Taxus population is under severe pressure. It is high time when few patches of Taxus are demarcated as Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas, and detailed studies on its autecology are initiated.     

Assessment of urban sustainability efficiency based on general data envelopment analysis: a case study of two cities in western and eastern China

Sustainable urban development focuses on enhancing urban well-being, while also balancing the demands of urban social and economic development, natural resource consumption, and environmental pollution. This work used general data envelopment analysis to assess the urban sustainability efficiency (USE) and sustainability potential (SP) in Lanzhou and Xiamen, two cities that are characteristic of urban areas in western and eastern China. The assessment indicator system included important natural and urban welfare factors as input and output indices, respectively. The results showed that overall urban sustainability efficiency increased in Lanzhou and Xiamen from 1985 to 2010, but that the sustainability of natural resources clearly decreased. The urban sustainability efficiency of Xiamen was higher than that of Lanzhou, and the sustainability potential of Xiamen was lower than that of Lanzhou; this indicates that Xiamen performed better in terms of urban sustainable development. The urban sustainability efficiency in Xiamen has increased with increasing urban population, and the rate and scale of economic development have been higher than in Lanzhou. The assessment and analysis performed in this study show that cities with different natural resources and development characteristics have different forms, patterns, and trajectories of sustainable development.