Drinking water risk assessment in practice: the case of Swedish drinking water producers at risk from floods

To achieve a safe and reliable drinking water supply, water producers need to manage a large range of risks regarding both water quality and quantity. A risk management approach where risks are systematically identified and handled in a preventive manner is promoted by the World Health Organization and supported by researchers and drinking water experts worldwide. Risk assessment is an important part of such a management approach, and a variety of tools for risk assessment are described in the literature. There is, however, little knowledge of how drinking water risk assessment is performed in practice, including which tools that are actually used. This study investigates the use of risk assessment tools, and the approach to risk management, on a local level in the Swedish water sector. It is based on interviews with key persons from a targeted selection of water producers. We find that the application of tools as well as the approach to risk assessment and management differs considerably between the water producers. The tools most frequently used are mainly the ones promoted or required by Swedish national organizations. Although many of the water producers have done some kind of risk assessment, most have not implemented a risk management approach. Furthermore, their knowledge of the concepts of risk and risk management is often limited. The largest challenge identified is to prioritize risk assessment, so that it is actually performed and then used as a basis for managing risk in a systematic way.     

Exergy analysis as a tool for the integration of very complex energy systems: The case of carbonation/calcination CO2 systems in existing coal power plants

A common characteristic of carbon capture and storage systems is the important energy consumption associated with the CO₂ capture process. This important drawback can be solved with the analysis, synthesis and optimization of this type of energy systems. The second law of thermodynamics has proved to be an essential tool in power and chemical plant optimization. The exergy analysis method has demonstrated good results in the synthesis of complex systems and efficiency improvements in energy applications.In this paper, a synthesis of pinch analysis and second law analysis is used to show the optimum window design of the integration of a calcium looping cycle into an existing coal power plant for CO₂ capture. Results demonstrate that exergy analysis is an essential aid to reduce energy penalties in CO₂ capture energy systems. In particular, for the case of carbonation/calcination CO₂ systems integrated in existing coal power plants, almost 40% of the additional exergy consumption is available in the form of heat. Accordingly, the efficiency of the capture cycle depends strongly on the possibility of using this heat to produce extra steam (live, reheat and medium pressure) to generate extra power at steam turbine. The synthesis of pinch and second law analysis could reduce the additional coal consumption due to CO₂ capture 2.5 times, from 217 to 85 MW.     

The role of risk perceptions in the risk mitigation process: The case of wildfire in high risk communities

An important policy question receiving considerable attention concerns the risk perception–risk mitigation process that guides how individuals choose to address natural hazard risks. This question is considered in the context of wildfire. We analyze the factors that influence risk reduction behaviors by homeowners living in the wildland–urban interface. The factors considered are direct experience, knowledge of wildfire risk, locus of responsibility, fulltime/seasonal status, and self-efficacy. Survey data from three homeowner associations in the western U.S. are used to estimate the direct and indirect effects of this relationship. Our results indicate that the effects of knowledge and locus of responsibility are mediated by homeowners' risk perceptions. We also find that beliefs of self-efficacy and fulltime/seasonal status have a direct influence on risk reduction behaviors. Finally, we find, surprisingly, that direct experience with wildfire does not directly influence the risk perception–risk mitigation process.     

Dynamic modeling of chemical fate and transport in multimedia environments at watershed scale-II: trichloroethylene test case

A multimedia environmental fate model was developed to study the temporal dynamics and spatial distribution of a chemical pollutant at watershed scale. The theoretical considerations and implementation of the model were described in the accompanying paper (Part I). This paper presents the result of a test simulation on the transport of trichloroethylene (TCE) in the Connecticut River Basin. The simulation results were reported as time series of concentrations and inter-media transport fluxes in the compartments of atmosphere, plant, soil, surface water, and sediment. Predicted concentrations from the test simulation were compared with published field data or predictions by validated models. The temporal trends in TCE predictions were evaluated by comparing the simulation results with monthly TCE concentrations in various environmental compartments and monthly fluxes of inter-media transport processes. Results indicated that the simulation results were in reasonable agreement with reported data in the literature. The results also revealed that the mass transport of TCE from the atmosphere compartment to soil and surface water was a major route of TCE dispersion in the environment.     

Dynamic modeling of chemical fate and transport in multimedia environments at watershed scale-I: theoretical considerations and model implementation

A geo-referenced environmental fate model was developed for analyzing unsteady-state dispersion and distribution of chemicals in multimedia environmental systems. Chemical transport processes were formulated in seven environmental compartments of air, canopy, surface soil, root-zone soil, vadose-zone soil, surface water, and sediment. The model assumed that the compartments were completely mixed and chemical equilibrium was established instantaneously between the sub-compartments within each compartment. A fugacity approach was utilized to formulate the mechanisms of diffusion, advection, physical interfacial transport, and transformation reactions. The governing equations of chemical mass balances in the environmental compartments were solved simultaneously to reflect the interactions between the compartments. A geographic information system (GIS) database and geospatial analysis were integrated into the chemical transport simulation to provide spatially explicit estimations of model parameters at watershed scale. Temporal variations of the environmental properties and source emissions were also considered in the parameter estimations. The outputs of the model included time-dependent chemical concentrations in each compartment and its sub-compartments, and inter-media mass fluxes between adjacent compartments at daily time steps.     

Implications of climate change on small island developing states: experience in the Caribbean region

As the international community debates long‐term strategies to address global warming, the issue is one of increasing concern for small island developing states. Collectively, these countries account for less than 1% of greenhouse gas emissions, yet their vulnerabilities are particularly high. This paper reviews international efforts including a regional effort on the part of 12 Caribbean countries to address this issue. For many countries and especially countries of the Caribbean and other small island developing states, vulnerabilities already exist and will only be exacerbated by accelerated global warming. Dealing with global environmental change will require good, reliable information to monitor change and assess the physical and economic impact of that change. It also will require an institutional and managerial framework that incorporates dynamic change into individual and collective decision‐making processes. Small island developing states must be active players affecting long‐term solutions to climate change. In the interim, targeted investments to address high priority vulnerabilities are likely to lead to no‐regrets outcomes with high environmental and economic benefits.     

The challenge of sustainable development in small island developing states: case study on tourism in the Caribbean

Small island developing states (SIDS) in the Caribbean have long specialised in primary commodity exports, and traditional export sectors continue to be a major source of employment. The challenge of sustainable development for the Caribbean SIDS has two dimensions. The first is to adjust to the economic and social impact of the loss of preferential markets for traditional exports and of the dismantling of the ISI apparatus erected during the post-World War II period. The second is to ensure that existing and new patterns of production and consumption comply with the criteria for sustainable development, which is here defined as environmental, socio-cultural and economic sustainability.
This article outlines the potential contribution of sustainable tourism to the larger goal of sustainable development in the SIDS in the Caribbean. It reviews current literature on sustainable development and sustainable tourism, particularly their application to the Caribbean SIDS, and evaluates the Caribbean tourism industry from the point of view of sustainable tourism. Conclusions are drawn and proposals made for a policy-oriented agenda in support of the quest for sustainable tourism in the SIDS in the Caribbean.     

Simulated climate adaptation in stormwater systems: evaluating the efficiency of adaptation strategies

Adaptations in infrastructure may be necessitated by changes in temperature and precipitation patterns to avoid losses and maintain expected levels of service. A roster of adaptation strategies has emerged in the climate change literature, especially with regard to timing: anticipatory, concurrent, or reactive. Significant progress has been made in studying climate change adaptation decision making that incorporates uncertainty, but less work has examined how strategies interact with existing infrastructure characteristics to influence adaptability. We use a virtual testbed of highway drainage crossings configured with a selection of actual culvert emplacements in Colorado, USA, to examine the effect of adaptation strategy and culvert characteristics on cost efficiency and service level under varying rates of climate change. A meta-model approach with multinomial regression is used to compare the value of better climate change predictions with better knowledge of existing crossing characteristics. We find that, for a distributed system of infrastructural units like culverts, knowing more about existing characteristics can improve the efficacy of adaptation strategies more than better projections of climate change. Transportation departments choosing climate adaptation strategies often lack detailed data on culverts, and gathering that data could improve the efficiency of adaptation despite climate uncertainty.     

Exogenous factors in collective policy learning: the case of municipal flood risk governance in the Netherlands

ABSTRACT

Conceptualizing and analyzing collective policy learning processes is a major ongoing theoretical and empirical challenge. A key gap concerns the role of exogenous factors, which remains under-theorized in the policy learning literature. In this paper, we aim to advance the understanding of the role that exogenous factors play in collective learning processes. We propose a typology of exogenous factors (i.e. material, socioeconomic, institutional, discursive), and subsequently apply this in a comparative study of flood risk policymaking in two municipalities in the Netherlands. We find that exogenous factors are indeed essential for understanding collective learning in these cases, as the combined influence with endogenous factors can steer similar learning processes towards different learning products. We conclude our contribution by identifying two opportunities for further developing the collective learning framework, namely regarding the distinction of varying learning products, and the dynamics of exogenous factors over time.     

Organotin pollution in China: an overview of the current state and potential health risk

In recent years, considerable amounts of organotin compounds have entered the environment due to the wide industrial applications in China. Organotins were found in various environmental media. An overview of organotin contamination and distribution in China from various environmental samples, including waters and sediments, is presented to better understand the current state of organotin pollution in China and to improve environmental monitoring and management of organotin contamination. Exposure to organotin contaminated water and sediments induces accumulation of organotins in molluscs and biological effects such as imposex. Potential harmful effects on human health may also result from consumption of contaminated seafoods. Detailed information on distribution, impacts and assessment of risk to human health and marine ecosystems is discussed and monitoring of TBT using biomarkers is described. This review highlights the serious organotin contamination of coastal cities in China and emphasizes the need for long-term monitoring and the development of an effective regulatory program.     

Information, power and environmental justice in Botany: the role of community information systems

In the environmental conflict that surrounds the sighting of hazardous waste facilities there is usually a volatile mix of disparities in power, expertise and information access as well as differing views on risk, which are all played out amidst commercial arrangements and environmental justice concerns. In recent times, the volatility of this mix has been further compounded by the growing climate of public concern and distrust surrounding scientific developments and technology. While there is no 'quick fix' to the complex conflict that this entails, community information systems (CISs) based on participatory models can help address the outstanding issues of capacity, information access, power inequities and environmental justice. CISs are an effective response to the five crucial elements of a toxic dispute, that is, the dialogue, capacity building, information access, evaluation of hazards and risk, and expertise. This paper will review the role of community accessible information systems in the dispute in Botany over the management and destruction of Orica Australia's stockpile of the persistent organic pollutant, hexachlorobenzene (HCB). It will focus on the role of CIS in responding to the challenges for expert information delivery, and in addressing the disparity of informational power within the toxic dispute.     

OLIVERO: the project analysing the future of olive production systems on sloping land in the Mediterranean basin

From 2003 to 2006, a consortium of six European partners analysed the future of olive production systems on sloping land in the Mediterranean basin. Olive production on such land dates back to pre-Roman times, but the production systems (known by the acronym SMOPS, for "Sloping and Mountainous Olive Production Systems"), are under threat. Many are unsustainable environmentally (erosion hazard), socially (exodus of young people) or economically (high labour costs). The OLIVERO research project was possible thanks to a grant of euro1.5 million from the European Union, which gives out euro2.5 billion in subsidies annually for olive production. An extended survey conducted by the project in five sites in Portugal, Spain, Italy and Greece revealed the diversity and multifunctionality of SMOPS. Four main systems were identified as important for the future: traditional, organic, semi-intensive and intensive. The conceptual framework of OLIVERO involved six phases, ranging from the initial survey up to policy recommendations. In all phases there was intensive contact with stakeholders and institutions. End-users were identified at three levels: local, intermediate and regional, and national/international. This paper presents the highlights of the physical analysis of land and water resources, crop and land management, and economics and policies. Scenario studies gave insight into the possible future: some SMOPS will be gradually abandoned or transformed into nature conservation areas, others will exploit drip irrigation and follow the intensification patterns of agriculture in the valleys, and a third group will continue to be managed more extensively, perhaps augmenting their income with other activities (possibly off-farm) or turning to organic production systems. At the five international OLIVERO meetings held from 2003 to 2006, knowledge, experience and ideas on the future of olive production systems were intensively exchanged. A network was established for ongoing and future cooperation. Two end-user seminars were held in Matera (Italy) and Lisbon. Over 70 scientific papers have been published.     

Soil organic carbon sequestration in cotton production systems of the southeastern United States: a review

Past agricultural management practices have contributed to the loss of soil organic carbon (SOC) and emission of greenhouse gases (e.g., carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide). Fortunately, however, conservation-oriented agricultural management systems can be, and have been, developed to sequester SOC, improve soil quality, and increase crop productivity. Our objectives were to (i) review literature related to SOC sequestration in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) production systems, (ii) recommend best management practices to sequester SOC, and (iii) outline the current political scenario and future probabilities for cotton producers to benefit from SOC sequestration. From a review of 20 studies in the region, SOC increased with no tillage compared with conventional tillage by 0.48 +/- 0.56 Mg C ha(-1) yr(-1) (H(0): no change, p < 0.001). More diverse rotations of cotton with high-residue-producing crops such as corn (Zea mays L.) and small grains would sequester greater quantities of SOC than continuous cotton. No-tillage cropping with a cover crop sequestered 0.67 +/- 0.63 Mg C ha(-1) yr(-1), while that of no-tillage cropping without a cover crop sequestered 0.34 +/- 47 Mg C ha(-1) yr(-1) (mean comparison, p = 0.04). Current government incentive programs recommend agricultural practices that would contribute to SOC sequestration. Participation in the Conservation Security Program could lead to government payments of up to Dollars 20 ha(-1). Current open-market trading of C credits would appear to yield less than Dollars 3 ha(-1), although prices would greatly increase should a government policy to limit greenhouse gas emissions be mandated.     

Barriers and enablers to climate change adaptation in hierarchical governance systems: the case of Vietnam

Governments fulfil important roles in increasing the adaptive capacity of local communities to respond to climate change impacts, particularly in developing countries. Existing studies on how governments enable and constrain the ways in which local level communities learn and build their adaptive capacity, however, generally adopt network or market-oriented types of governance. However, the most vulnerable regions to climate change impact in the world are generally governed through hierarchical policy systems. This research aims to understand how the hierarchical policy system in Vietnam creates enables and/or constrains the policy capacity of policy actors to contribute to effective climate change adaptation. We conducted interviews (n?=?26) with key actors at multiple levels of government. Our findings show the importance of clear legal institutions, available financing for implementing policies, and the training of governmental staff, particularly at district and commune levels where the policy capacities are generally too low to deal with climate change impacts. We conclude that any efforts to support local actors (i.e. smallholder farmers) should include investments in policy capacity to ensure uptake and upscaling of adaptation actions more broadly.     

The paradox of the modernisation of urban water systems in Europe: Intrinsic institutional limits for sustainability

This article assesses the sustainability potential of the urban water systems in Europe (UWSE) following their modernisation. A decade after implementation and close to the first deadlines, modernisation efforts seem to have not been (totally) successful. This article examines the ability of governance to achieve sustainability and poses the question of how modernisation develops a particular “terrain” more or less favourable to sustainability. We use the Institutional resource regimes framework which has been dedicated to determining the potential for sustainability of natural resources regulation. Conclusions show that the modernisation of UWSEs offers a path for progress which though necessary is insufficient due to a lack of coherence between policy design and the regulatory system. Globally, the development of regulation goes hand in hand with increasing inconsistencies that reduce the efficiency of the reform.     

The costs and benefits of packaging waste management systems in Europe: the perspective of local authorities

Local authorities are generally in charge of household packaging waste management operations, particularly in countries with Green Dot schemes or similar extended producer responsibility systems. This leads to the need of establishing a system of financial transfers between the packaging industry and the local authorities (regarding the costs involved in selective collection and sorting). In the present study, the costs and benefits of recycling, from the perspective of local authorities, are compared for Portugal, Belgium and Italy (in Lombardia region), adopting the same economic–financial methodology. The results show that the industry is not paying the net cost of packaging waste management. If the savings attained by diverting packaging waste from other treatment operations are not considered, it seems that the industry should increase the financial support to local authorities. However, if the avoided costs with other treatments are considered as a benefit for local authorities, the costs are generally outweighed by the benefits, and the financial support could, therefore, be reduced.