Research evolution on intelligentized technologies for arc welding process

This paper presents some new evolutions of research works in the IRWTL at SJTU on intelligentized technologies for arc welding dynamic process and robot systems, including multi-information sensing of arc welding process, such as characteristic extraction of weld pool image, voltage, current, and sound, arc-spectral features; multi-information fusion algorithms for prediction of weld penetration; intelligentized modeling of welding dynamic process; intelligent control methodology for welding dynamic process; intelligentized technologies for robotic welding, such as guiding and tracking seam technology and intelligent control of weld pool and penetration in robotic welding process; and development of autonomous welding robot system for the special environment. The ideas of intelligentized welding manufacturing technology (IWMT) and intelligentized welding manufacturing engineering (IWME) are presented in this paper for systematization of intending researches and applications on intelligentized technologies for modern welding manufacturing. The studies of intelligentized welding presented in this paper establish the foundation work of intending researches and applications on intelligentized technologies for modern welding manufacturing.     

Geometry Regulation of Material Deposition in Near-Net Shape Manufacturing by Thermally Scanned Welding

This paper introduces a thermally scanned material deposition control method for near-net shape manufacturing of metal parts by welding. To eliminate thermal distortion and the required intermediate-layer milling steps, and to control the material structure, plasma arc scan welding under infrared pyrometry sensing regulates the temperature field by providing in-process heat treatment of the part. In laboratory tests, the material is simultaneously deposited by a gas metal arc welding torch, with monitoring of the weld profile by two laser stripe profilometers. These sensors provide measurements of the bead width for its feedback control by modulation of the wire feed. To compensate for measurement delays, real-time prediction by a deposition model is employed, with its parameters identified during the process. Preview of the geometric surface irregularities in front of the deposition is used as feedforward to ensure the desired layer deposition patterns in adjacent beads. The performance of this bead-size control scheme is assessed experimentally on a robotic laboratory station, and applications of the thermally scanned material deposition technique are explored in rapid manufacturing of customized metal products.     

Plasma arc welding: Process,sensing, control and modeling

This article introduces the basic principles of plasma arc welding (PAW) and provides a survey of the latest research and applications in the field. The PAW process is compared to gas tungsten arc welding, its process characteristics are listed, the classification is made, and two modes of operation in PAW, i.e., melt-in and keyhole, are explained. The keyhole mechanism and its influencing factors are introduced. The sensing and control methodologies of the PAW process are reviewed. The coupled behaviors of weld pool and keyhole, the heat transfer and fluid flow as well as three-dimensional modeling and simulation in PAW are discussed. Finally, a novel PAW process variant, the controlled pulse keyholing process and the corresponding experimental system are introduced.     

Influence of displacement constraints in thermomechanical analysis of laser micro-spot welding process

The evolution of mechanical components into smaller size generating a need for microwelding of these components using laser which offers better control as compared to arc and plasma processing. The present article describes the numerical simulation of laser micro-spot welding using finite element method. A two dimensional Gaussian distributed surface heat flux as a function of time is used to perform a sequentially coupled thermal and mechanical analysis. The model is used for simulating laser micro-spot welding of stainless steel sheet under different power conditions and configurations of mechanical constraints. The temperature dependent physical properties of SS304 have been considered for the simulation and an isotropic strain hardening model has been used. The simulated weld bead dimensions have been compared with experimental results and temperature profiles have been calculated. The maximum deformation of 0.02 mm is obtained with maximum laser power of 75 W. The thermal stress is more inducing factor to temperature induced residual stresses and plastic strain as compared to mechanical constraints. The plastic strain changes significantly by displacement constraints as compared to residual stress.     

Modeling and simulation of arc: Laser and hybrid welding process

Welding is a fabrication process to join two different materials. Among the many welding processes, the arc and laser welding processes are the most widely used. Great effort is required to understand the physical phenomena of arc and laser welding due to the complex behaviors which include liquid phase, solid phase and, gas phase. So it is necessary to conduct numerical simulation to understand the detailed procedures of welding. This paper will present the various numerical simulation methods of the arc welding processes such as arc plasma, gas tungsten arc welding, gas metal arc welding, laser welding, and laser–arc hybrid welding. These simulations are conducted by the finite element method, finite differential method and volume of fluid method to describe and analyze the various welding processes.     

Numerical analysis of keyhole geometry and temperature profiles in plasma arc welding

In keyhole plasma arc welding (PAW), the formation of the keyhole involves complicated thermo-physical mechanism. The shape and dimensions of the keyhole directly determine the heat deposition along the thickness direction of the test plates, the penetration depth and the weld bead quality. Based on analysis of the forces acting on the weld pool, a keyhole model is established according to the force-balance condition on the keyhole wall. The shape and dimensions of quasi-steady state keyhole are numerically predicted. The keyhole shape and size are used to calibrate some distribution parameters of the combined volumetric heat source which takes into consideration the geometrical feature of welds with larger ratio of penetration depth to width and volumetric distribution characteristic of the plasma heat intensity along the plate thickness direction. The temperature fields on stainless steel plates are numerically simulated. The calculated fusion line at the transverse cross-section of PAW welds are compared with the experimental measurements. It is found that the predicted results are in agreement with the experimental data.     

Improvement of welding heat source models for TIG-MIG hybrid welding process

Tungsten inert gas-metal inert gas (TIG-MIG) hybrid welding process is an effective way to improve welding productivity and quality due to advantages of the two processes. Mathematical analysis is crucial to fundamentally understand this synergetic welding process. In this study, based on experimental visualization of arc behaviors, some assumptions are proposed to deduce adaptive plane and volumetric heat source models separately for each involved welding method first. The influence of torch angles on distribution of temperature and geometry of weld bead are calculated and compared with experimental results. It shows that this developed algorithm of heat source can be employed to accurately predict welding process whether the electrode gun is slanted backward or forward to the direction of welding. Then TIG-MIG hybrid welding process is simulated and analyzed without considering the attractive or repulsive force of two arcs. The characteristic of TIG-MIG welding process is discussed compared to single MIG. It lays the foundation for the further research on the interaction of the two arcs during TIG-MIG hybrid welding.     

Geometric variability and surface finish of weld zones in Yb:YAG laser welded advanced high strength steels

Laser welding is used for joining advanced high strength steels (AHSS) to improve formability and performance. In this paper, the geometric variability observed in the fusion zones and heat affected zones of several combinations of AHSS (different types, coatings and thicknesses), which were butt welded using a Trumpf TRUDISK 6000^® Yb:YAG laser beam, is presented. The surface texture parameters such as roughness and waviness of laser welds were also measured and correlated with geometric variability. Results indicate that although high quality welds with minimal defects can be obtained using the Yb:YAG laser welding process, there is considerable variation in both the shape and the dimensions of weld zones. The variability increased with an increase in thickness differentials between the sheets being welded. Analysis of the top of the weld surfaces also suggested that aluminum coating on USIBOR samples contributes significantly to increased roughness. An increase in laser power coupled with corresponding increase in welding speed did not impact variability. A fair correlation between the surface roughness and weld region variability exists, although this needs further study.     

A tutorial on learning human welder's behavior: Sensing,modeling, and control

Human welder's experiences and skills are critical for producing quality welds in manual GTAW process. Learning human welder's behavior can help develop next generation intelligent welding machines and train welders faster. In this tutorial paper, various aspects of mechanizing the welder's intelligence are surveyed, including sensing of the weld pool, modeling of the welder's adjustments and this model-based control approach. Specifically, different sensing methods of the weld pool are reviewed and a novel 3D vision-based sensing system developed at University of Kentucky is introduced. Characterization of the weld pool is performed and human intelligent model is constructed, including an extensive survey on modeling human dynamics and neuro-fuzzy techniques. Closed-loop control experiment results are presented to illustrate the robustness of the model-based intelligent controller despite welding speed disturbance. A foundation is thus established to explore the mechanism and transformation of human welder's intelligence into robotic welding system. Finally future research directions in this field are presented.     

2219铝合金TIG焊缝激光冲击强化与腐蚀性能研究

目的 改善2219铝合金钨极氩弧焊焊缝的耐腐蚀性能。方法 采用激光冲击技术对焊缝进行强化处理,比较分析处理前后的表面残余应力、物相组成和元素状态,通过静态浸泡失重法和电化学试验测量腐蚀速率的变化。结果 经过激光冲击强化处理后,2219铝合金焊缝部位的元素状态没有改变,但焊缝区域的残余拉应力变为残余压应力。2219铝合金钨极氩弧焊接区域的自腐蚀电位明显下降,相比未经激光冲击处理的试件,焊核区和焊接过渡区的平均腐蚀电流分别减小了14%和12.7%,腐蚀速率分别减小了16.9%和12.9%。结论 激光冲击强化可以有效提升2219铝合金钨极氩弧焊焊缝区域的耐腐蚀性能,可以为提升特种装备安全性和轻量化提供技术参考。     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of alloy C-276 weldments fabricated by continuous and pulsed current gas tungsten arc welding techniques

Effects of switching over from gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) to pulsed current gas tungsten arc welding (PCGTAW) on the quality of joints produced in Hastelloy C-276 material were investigated. Welding was carried out both by autogenous mode and using ERNiCrMo-3 filler wire. Microstructures of weld joints produced with and without current pulsing were studied using optical and scanning electron microscopy. Microsegregation occurring in GTAW and PCGTAW joints was investigated using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). Strength and ductility of weld joints produced with and without pulsing were evaluated. The results show that pulsing results in refined microstructure, reduced microsegregation and improved strength of weld joints. Secondary phase(s) noticed in GTA weldments were found to be absent in PCGTA weldments. Autogenous PCGTA weldments were found to be the best in terms of: (i) freedom from microsegregation, (ii) strength and (iii) freedom from unwanted secondary phases.     

Welding processes for wear resistant overlays

This paper presents a comprehensive survey of welding processes used to deposit wear resistant overlays. It is based on both literature review and research work performed at the Canadian Centre for Welding and Joining. The focus is on the two most popular material systems used for wear resistant overlays: nickel-base with the addition of tungsten carbide particles, and iron-base in which chromium carbides of the form M₇C₃ nucleate during solidification. The processes surveyed in detail are plasma transfer arc welding, submerged arc welding, laser beam welding, gas metal arc welding-related processes using tubular wires, oxy-acetylene flame brazing, and the still-experimental applications of friction stir processing. Cost and market are key factors influencing technical decisions on wear protection overlays, but the information is scarce and often tightly guarded. An informal survey from our industrial partners is included.     

Arc welding induced residual stress in butt-joints of thin plates under constraints

The purpose of this work is to assess the effect of welding fixtures on distributions and values of residual stresses during Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW). The butt-joint GTAW of AA5251 plate is investigated using a transient thermo-mechanical analysis performed by the finite element program, ABAQUS. The model considers two different welding conditions including unconstrained and perfectly constrained conditions while macro examination and residual stress measurements by implementing hole drilling techniques are utilized to evaluate the predictions. The results show that the utilizing of a welding fixture alters the temperature field within the plate being welded and the depth of the weld pool decreases by about 21% in this case. In addition, the application of a welding fixture effectively changes both distributions and maximum values of transverse and longitudinal residual stresses.     

Double-electrode arc welding process: Principle,variants, control and developments

Double-electrode gas metal arc welding (DE-GMAW) is a novel welding process in which a second electrode, non-consumable or consumable, is added to bypass part of the wire current. The bypass current reduces the heat input in non-consumable DE-GMAW or increases the deposition rate in consumable DE-GMAW. The fixed correlation of the heat input with the deposition in conventional GMAW and its variants is thus changed and becomes controllable. At the University of Kentucky, DE-GMAW has been tested/developed by adding a plasma arc welding torch, a GTAW (gas tungsten arc welding) torch, a pair of GTAW torches, and a GMAW torch. Steels and aluminum alloys are welded and the system is powered by one or multiple power supplies with appropriate control methods. The metal transfer has been studied at the University of Kentucky and Shandong University resulting in the desirable spray transfer be obtained with less than 100 A base current for 1.2 mm diameter steel wire. At Lanzhou University of Technology, pulsed DE-GMAW has been successfully developed to join aluminum/magnesium to steel. At the Adaptive Intelligent Systems LLC, DE-GMAW principle has been applied to the submerged arc welding (SAW) and the embedded control systems needed for industrial applications have been developed. The DE-SAW resulted in 1/3 reduction in heat input for a shipbuilding application and the weld penetration depth was successfully feedback controlled. In addition, the bypass concept is extended to the GTAW resulting in the arcing-wire GTAW which adds a second arc established between the tungsten and filler to the existing gas tungsten arc. The DE-GMAW is extended to double-electrode arc welding (DE-AW) where the main electrode may not necessarily to be consumable. Recently, the Beijing University of Technology systematically studied the metal transfer in the arcing-wire GTAW and found that the desired metal transfer modes may always be obtained from the given wire feed speed by adjusting the wire current and wire position/orientation appropriately. A variety of DE-AW processes are thus available to suit for different applications, using existing arc welding equipment.     

7A52铝合金等离子弧焊接头盐雾腐蚀行为研究

目的研究7A52装甲铝合金等离子弧焊接接头耐海洋大气环境的腐蚀特征和规律。方法通过盐雾加速腐蚀试验进行腐蚀评估,并在腐蚀后利用扫描电子显微镜(SEM)观察腐蚀产物微观形貌,并分析腐蚀时间对腐蚀性能的影响,通过能谱(EDS)分析腐蚀产物的元素组成。结果 7A52铝合金焊接接头盐雾腐蚀初期(8 h)热影响区首先出现点蚀,随着腐蚀时间延长(12 h),母材和焊缝发生点蚀,热影响区腐蚀产物层氧的含量最多。结论 7A52装甲铝合金等离子弧焊接接头处热影响区是腐蚀敏感区,热影响区比焊缝区和母材区耐蚀性稍差。     

In-Process Joint Strength Estimation in Pulsed Laser Spot Welding Using Artificial Neural Networks

Pulsed laser spot welding is used in the manufacture of many goods. Because weak joints can lead to product defects, it is important to monitor and control the joint strength precisely. This paper introduces a method to estimate the joint strength of spot welds during the welding process. A point infrared sensor is used to measure temporal radiation on the top face of the spot weld. Because variable measuring conditions affect the radiation power, a scale-free radiation feature is extracted from the measured radiation and used as a monitoring criterion. An artificial neural network (ANN) uses this feature to estimate joint strength. In experiments, significant welding parameters are varied within a controllable range, and 640 weld parts are used for ANN learning. The correlation coefficient between the estimated and measured strength is more than 0.98 for learned parts. Another 180 weld parts are used to appraise the efficiency of the learned ANN, and the mean square error of estimation is 0.78 kgf.     

大气波导传播模型及特性分析

介绍了波导传播条件以及目前用于计算波导传播特性的2种模型——抛物方程模型和射线追踪技术。利用抛物方程模型计算了波导环境下,电磁波在不同的发射频率、不同位置处的传播损耗,利用射线追踪技术模拟了射线在波导中的传播轨迹和时延特性。结合不同的计算结果,综合分析了大气波导传播特性对通信系统的影响。     

汽车排气管焊缝断裂的失效分析

某汽车用排气管使用不久焊缝处断裂。对失效排气管焊缝进行化学成分、金相组织和断口的微观分析。发现该排气管焊缝柱状组织粗大,断口微观形貌为沿晶断裂,柱状晶贯穿整个断裂面,断口有较明显的脆性特征。分析认为该排气管属于早期失效,是由于薄壁的排气管焊接时温度过高,导致焊缝柱状组织粗大,加之薄壁管冷却又快,致使焊缝产生较大的内应力。建议改进焊接工艺,控制较低的层间温度,使焊缝组织细化,解决焊缝断裂问题。     

Efficient welding conditions in magnetic pulse welding process

This study investigates the experimental research of the appropriated conditions for the magnetic pulse welding of AA6060T6 tubular assembly. Some welding tests were performed with two process parameters: the charging voltage and the width of the air gap between the two parts to be welded. A torsion-shear test, associated with the material fracture surfaces observation, gives an insight about the appropriateness of the welding conditions. The failure mode of the destructive test gives a dimensional criterion of the weld that is used as weld quality. It appears that the voltage does not strongly affect the weld quality for a low gap. It is possible to find an optimal gap range giving a high weld length. When the gap is too small, it is necessary to increase the pressure on the flyer, and some cracks appear in the material. Similarly, when the gap is too large, the high impact energy damages the welded interface.     

Experimental investigation on flexural behavior of friction stir welded high density polyethylene sheets

Flexural strength is one of the main criteria in evaluation of the mechanical properties of polymeric joints. The flexural strength of thermoplastics, such as high density polyethylene (HDPE) sheets, is influenced by friction stir welding parameters. The determination of the welding parameters plays an important role in the weld strength. In the present study, the response surface method (RSM) was used as a statistical design of experiment technique to set the optimal welding parameters. The designed tool was consisted of a rotating pin, a stationary shoulder (shoe) and a heating system inside shoe. Rotational speed of the pin, tool traverse speed and shoe temperature were considered as varying parameters. Obtained results show a significant relationship between considered properties and processing parameters through an analysis of variance (ANOVA) study and the response surface method. It was found that welding at a high level of rotational speed and a lower level of tool travel speed increases weld flexural strength by reducing size of defects.