洱海流域农业面源污染研究进展

农业面源污染控制是洱海水质保护必须直面的不可逃避的问题。在系统调研洱海流域农业面源污染领域研究成果的基础上,归纳了洱海流域不同农业产业、行政区域、农用地、入湖河流和入湖河口湿地农业面源污染分布及特征,介绍了洱海流域农业面源污染研究采用的技术,总结了入湖河口湿地、农田灌排沟渠和湖滨缓冲带对洱海流域农业面源污染治理产生的积极作用,阐明大蒜不合理的施肥和轮作模式,奶牛、猪和肉牛等大牲畜的养殖以及土地利用的频繁改变等是导致洱海流域农业面源污染负荷产生的主要原因。通过合理的化肥减量施用、有机肥替代化肥、水稻-蚕豆轮作以及蚕豆间作大蒜模式,既能削减农业面源污染负荷,又能保证作物优质适产。针对洱海流域农业面源污染综合防治存在的问题,提出今后应加大农村生产生活、入湖河流生态系统以及养殖业等对洱海流域农业面源污染影响的研究。     

城市面源污染特征及排放负荷研究--以内江市为例

城市面源污染已引起国内外的重视,研究城市面源污染特征及排放负荷,为城市面源防治提供借鉴有重要意义。在内江市将城市下垫面按照水文效应和面源污染特性不同划分为屋面,庭院,交通道路,城市水环境四类,每类下垫面中选取一定数量的点进行监测,根据选取的典型点位的监测结果,研究城市面源污染特征及污染物负荷,结果表明：（1）各类下垫面中,交通干道污染质量浓度普遍较高,屋面污染物质量浓度相对较低,交通干道 COD、悬浮物、总磷、氨氮、总氮平均质量浓度分别为215.31 mg·L-1、280.20 mg·L-1、0.35 mg·L-1、2.29 mg·L-1、4.06 mg·L-1;屋面COD、悬浮物、总磷、氨氮、总氮平均质量浓度分别为85.56 mg·L-1、117.25 mg·L-1、0.13 mg·L-1、2.03 mg·L-1、3.63 mg·L-1。（2）不同材质屋面中,沥青屋面的污染物质量浓度普遍较高,陶瓦屋面的污染物质量浓度相对较低。沥青屋面 COD、悬浮物、总磷、氨氮、总氮平均质量浓度分别为73.4 mg·L-1、56.0 mg·L-1、0.181 mg·L-1、2.529 mg·L-1、5.254 mg·L-1;陶瓦屋面COD、悬浮物、总磷、氨氮、总氮平均质量浓度分别为30.8 mg·L-1、45.4 mg·L-1、0.106 mg·L-1、2.099 mg·L-1、4.167 mg·L-1。（3）单次降雨COD污染负荷在34.6~73.7 t之间,相当于整个城区城镇生活污水不加处理排放1天;根据3次降雨监测结果估算全年COD、悬浮物、总磷、氨氮、总氮排放量分别为2177.1 t、2778.3 t、3.855 t、41.410 t、69.133 t,城市面源COD污染负荷是城镇生活源的近20%。（4）各类下垫面中,屋面的污染物排放负荷贡献率最大,其次为庭院、交通干道、一般道路、城市水环境,一次典型降雨中,屋面对COD污染负荷的贡献率为30.9%,庭院为28.7%,交通干道为24.7%,一般道路为14.9%,城市水环境仅为0.8%。（5）各类下垫面中,交通干道的初始冲刷效应最明显,其次为一般道路、庭院、屋面。根据分析得出结论：城市面源中COD、悬浮物的污染不容忽视;不同下垫面呈现不同的污染特征,屋面的污染物质量浓度较低,但由于面积贡献率大,污染物负荷贡献率较高,均在25%以上,交通干道、一般道路五类污染物由于质量浓度较高,各污染物负荷贡献率均超过其面积贡献率,可作为城市面源防治的重点;截留和处理城市降雨初期径流对于城市面源污染处理非常重要。     

利用农田系统中源汇型景观组合控制面源磷污染

通过田间调查、采样分析和小区试验,研究浙江省农田系统中源汇型景观组合及其控制面源磷污染的效果.调查表明,浙江省农田系统中源、汇配置的景观类型主要有:蔬菜地 - 稻田系统、蔬菜地 - 茭白田系统、桑园地 -稻田系统、旱地 - 稻田系统、高施肥稻田 - 低施肥稻田系统、农地(稻田、旱地) - 多塘系统、农地(稻田、旱地) - 植草水道(泥质排水沟)等.不同利用方式农田排水中磷含量有较大的差异,总磷平均含量为桑园>蔬菜地>稻田、小麦田、油菜田>休闲地>茭白田.小区试验表明,利用蔬菜地(旱地) - 稻田 - 茭白系统、蔬菜 - 稻田系统、桑园 - 稻田系统和蔬菜地 - (多)水塘系统可明显降低磷流失.建议对某些养分流失严重的农业流域,通过调整土地利用方式和增加养分汇型景观面积来控制农业面源污染.     

基于GIS的龙墩水库典型小流域面源污染氮磷负荷研究

以南京市高淳区龙墩水库流域为研究对象,运用地理信息系统(GIS)和通用土壤流失方程模型(USLE)预测氮磷的污染负荷.利用SWAT模型的子流域划分模块进行流域分区,运用等标污染负荷和等标污染强度进行面源污染评价,最后通过聚类分析完成氮磷污染负荷的分级,从而确定关键源区.结果表明,研究区总磷(TP)污染强度为4.95 t·km-2,污染负荷为124.25 t;总氮(TN)污染强度为10.96t·km-2,污染负荷为274.87 t.整个流域的等标污染负荷为2.76× 109 m3,其中TN为2.75× 108 m3,等标污染负荷比为9.96％;TP为2.48× 109 m3,等标污染负荷比为90.04％,TP为流域面源污染的主要污染物.不同土地利用方式的TP和TN污染负荷和流失模数均以旱地为最高,旱地是流域内面源污染物的主要来源.     

农村面源污染治理的政策与管理服务体系优化——以上海郊区农村为例

农村面源污染控制不仅是技术问题,也是管理体制与机制问题,探讨并完善农村面源污染治理的政策、管理与服务体系已成为当前研究的热点与难点。以上海郊区农村为例,梳理总结农村面源污染及其控制现状;在肯定当前治理效果的同时,识别其局限性,指出农业政策与环境保护政策的不协调、农村发展模式转变下制度与服务体系的相对滞后是根本原因;针对当前农村面源污染重要的贡献者——化肥、农药、畜禽粪便以及农村生活污水,分别从改革农业补贴制度、重构实现农村多重价值的制度以及完善农业生产服务体系等方面给出了治理的对策与建议。     

小流域面源污染减控措施优化管理

以长春市重要饮用水源地石头口门水库的莫家沟小流域为研究区,选择横垄耕作、修建梯田、退耕还林、化肥减施和人工湿地5种措施进行磷素削减处理,共计21个措施组合方案;以实施措施的费用最小为目标函数,以水库水质TP浓度和采用不同措施的土地面积为约束条件,建立小流域出口水质优化管理模型。模拟计算3个阶段的可行性最优方案分别为:2011—2020年,选取措施为施肥量不变,现状梯田面积不变,坡度≤5°的耕地采取横垄耕作,其他退耕还林;2021—2030年,在第一阶段实施方案的基础上,新建人工湿地0.03 km2;2031—2050年,全部农田原位退耕还林,保持人工湿地面积不变,最终实现入库水质ρ(TP)≤0.01 mg.L-1的目标。化肥减施和梯田建设面积是影响方案选择的主要因素。     

干旱内陆河流域土地利用变化及其对环境的影响——以西北地区黑河流域为例

从区域的角度,研究土地利用/土地覆被变化导致的生态环境退化,对于丰富土地利用/土地覆被变化研究内容具有重要的理论意义,同时又对当地生态环境的保护与恢复具有现实的指导意义。文章以我国西北干旱区内陆河流域黑河为例,利用遥感和GIS技术,分析和评价近17年(1987—2004年)来该流域土地利用的动态变化及其对于整个流域环境的影响。研究结果表明,自1987—2004年黑河流域5种土地利用类型面积发生了显著的变化。具体表现在耕地面积由1987年的5178.0km2增加到2004年的5357.8km2,林地面积从1987年的6422.1km2增加到2004年的6450.4km2,城镇用地面积从1987年的115179.5km2增加到2004年的115791.4km2;另一方面,草地面积却从1987年的27710.6km2减少到2004年的27209.3km2,水域面积从1987年的1645.7km2减少到2004年的1386.4km2。同时又分别从黑河上、中、下游方面,对土地利用变化情况作了具体的分析。通过以上研究可以看出,近17年来,黑河流域土地利用发生了深刻的变化,由此造成了整个流域的生态环境退化问题,主要表现在水环境的变化、土地荒漠化、土壤盐渍化以及植被退化等方面。     

三峡库区笋溪河流域面源污染及其与土壤可蚀性k值的关系

研究三峡库区面源污染特征及其与水土流失的关系,可为库区氮磷污染和土壤侵蚀控制提供依据.选择三峡库区库尾笋溪河流域,在流域内分园地、林地和耕地3种土地利用类型共采集126个土壤样品,并在主干和支流采集52个水质样品.根据EPIC模型计算土壤可蚀性k值,分析流域内土壤可蚀性k值对面源污染的影响.结果表明,笋溪河流域面源污染主要是氮污染,总氮均值达1.37 mg/L,氮素的主要形态为硝态氮,占总氮的71.2%;总磷浓度为0.1 mg/L.流域内土壤可蚀性k值均值为0.040,随着土层加深土壤可蚀性k值呈上升趋势;林地土壤可蚀性k值显著低于园地和耕地.笋溪河流域总氮浓度与园地和耕地0-20 cm土壤可蚀性k值有关,硝态氮浓度与耕地0-40 cm土壤可蚀性k值有关.因此,笋溪河流域面源污染严重,主要来源是耕地和园地,应实行免耕、植物篱等措施,同时减少化肥施用,增加有机肥比例,以增加土壤抗侵蚀能力,进而控制流域水土流失和面源污染.(图6参37)     

利用生命周期评价方法评估高产粮田的面源污染潜在风险

将生命周期评价(LCA)方法引入农业系统,以山东桓台县为例,从农业系统外部投入的源头入手,对高投入高产出粮区粮食生产的潜在面源污染风险进行全面预测和评估。结果表明,在冬小麦-夏玉米轮作体系中,富营养化面源污染潜力(EP)最大,其次是水体毒性潜力(AEP),环境酸化潜力(AP)最弱。夏玉米的各类指标均高于冬小麦,且夏玉米的EP、AEP和冬小麦的EP值都超过了2000年世界人均环境影响潜值。冬小麦和夏玉米的IP指数(IP)分别是1.08和1.45,夏玉米的IP比冬小麦高34%。在冬小麦-夏玉米轮作体系中,夏玉米对面源污染的贡献高于冬小麦。氮肥的施用对AP和EP的贡献率分别达到99.75%和88.06%,农药的施用量决定了AEP的大小。根据农业面源污染综合防控技术示范区养分管理优化方案推荐的施肥量,测算可知优化后冬小麦和夏玉米的IP分别降低2.91%和18.35%,但夏玉米的IP仍然高于冬小麦。因此,控制氮肥和农药的施用量等源头减量措施是农业面源污染防控的关键。     

Fully integrated approach: an alternative solution of coupling a GIS and diffuse pollution models

As a tool for management, query, visualization and analysis of spatially referred information, GIS has been recognized as a method to aid the modeling of diffuse pollution and visualize the results in a spatial context. A common question in integrating diffuse pollution models and GIS is to choose a suitable coupling approach, in which the feature of diffuse pollution models should be taken into account. In this paper, we report on our experience in coupling a distributed diffuse pollution model with a GIS. A prototype of fully integrated system is developed in this paper. This system has high flexibility, extendibility and great data management efficiency. Differences in applicability of loose coupling, tight coupling and fully integrated approaches are addressed. It is concluded that the fully integrated approach can avoid tanglesome data exchange and routine execution and more robust than loose and tight coupling approaches and is suitable for distributed diffuse pollution modes.     

不同源类型农业非点源负荷特征研究——以新田小流域为例

以珠江三角洲北部新田小流域为研究对象,采用源类型法,在流域范围内建立林地、果园、旱地和水田四个全封闭的农业用地单元,并对四个单元出口处的径流量进行同步采样,分析COD、BOD、氨氮、总氮和总磷等污染物的负荷特征.结果表明:(1)流域地表水存在着明显非点源污染现象,不同源类型,地表径流的污染程度不同.(2)不同源类型农业非点源污染负荷强度不同,其中水田、旱地单位面积非点源负荷强度较大,果园、林地各项污染物的负荷强度相对最小.受地表扰动、施肥等人类活动影响,流域内水田、旱地是农业非点源污染发生的关键源区.(3)流域范围内,不同源类型农业非点源负荷总量不同,其中,果园各项污染物非点源负荷总量最大,其次是林地,水田、旱地非点源负荷输出总量较小,流域范围内,源面积成为影响非点源负荷总量的主要因素.(4)相应的非点源污染治理不仅是关键源区,同时应关注大面积流失区.     

A GIS-based approach to spatio-temporal analysis of environmental pollution in urban areas: A case study of Prague's environment extended by LIDAR data

Environmental pollution of urban areas is one of key factors that state authorities and local agencies have to consider in the decision-making process. To find a compromise among many criteria, spatial analysis extended by geostatistical methods and dynamic models has to be carried out. In this case, spatial analysis includes processing of a wide range of air, water and soil pollution data and possibly noise assessment and waste management data. Other spatial inputs consist of data from remote sensing and GPS field measurements. Integration and spatial data management are carried out within the framework of a geographic information system (GIS). From a modeling point of view, GIS is used mainly for the preprocessing and postprocessing of data to be displayed in digital map layers and visualized in 3D scenes. Moreover, for preprocessing and postprocessing, deterministic and geostatistical methods (IDW, ordinary kriging) are used for spatial interpolation; geoprocessing and raster algebra are used in multi-criteria evaluation and risk assessment methods. GIS is also used as a platform for spatio-temporal analyses or for building relationships between the GIS database and stand-alone modeling tools. A case study is presented illustrating the application of spatial analysis to the urban areas of Prague. This involved incorporating environmental data from monitoring networks and field measurements into digital map layers. Extra data inputs were used to represent the 3D concentration fields of air pollutants (ozone, NO₂) measured by differential absorption LIDAR. ArcGIS was used to provide spatial data management and analysis, extended by modeling tools developed internally in the ArcObjects environment and external modules developed with MapObjects. Ordinary kriging methods were employed to predict ozone concentrations in selected 3D locations together with estimates of variability. Higher ozone concentrations were found above crossroads with their heavy traffic than above the surrounding areas. Ozone concentrations also varied with height above the digital elevation model. Processed data, spatial analysis and models are integrated within the framework of the GIS project, providing an approach that state and local authorities can use to address environmental protection issues.     

城市生态环境演变趋势的集对分析预测研究——以武汉市为例

自然生态环境是城市社会经济健康发展的重要物质基础,生态足迹作为生态环境承载状态测度的指标,受到社会、经济、人口等多种因素的影响,表现出时空动态性和不确定性等特征,集对分析(SPA)为不确定性问题的建模提出一条新的思路。在对1988—2004年武汉市生态足迹及其社会经济影响因子时间序列分析的基础上,通过构建的集对分析动态模型,对武汉市2005—2020年总生态足迹发展趋势进行了预测。研究结果表明,2005—2020年总生态足迹将由1810.925万hm2增长到2873.857万hm2,呈现出低于GDP和生态效率增长速率的趋势,但生态环境将进一步恶化,对此就武汉市生态系统的发展提出了对策与建议。最后,指出SPA动态模型为城市生态系统预测研究提供了一种可行的解决方案。     

非点源污染对人类健康影响的研究进展

社会经济的发展,在使社会得以进步、物质得以丰富的同时,也产生了一系列的工业点源、农业或城市非点源的污染问题,而这些污染对人类健康造成了极大的威胁。尽管非点源污染与人类健康息息相关,但在大多数情况下,人们只考虑污染对环境质量本身的影响,而由非点源污染直接或间接影响到人类健康的问题却没有得到足够的重视。文章综述了目前国内外对非点源污染直接和间接影响人类健康的研究进展,提出了控制非点源污染及减缓它对人类健康影响的对策。。     

Post-evaluation of a water pollution control plan: methodology and case study

China has developed more than 20 water pollution control plans for river basins (RBWPs) since 1996. However, the implementation has generally lagged. This paper proposes a three-step, post-evaluation methodology to analyze the implementation result of a RBWP and its influential factors. First, a multi-attribute evaluation method based on an index system is established to score the enforcement results of a RBWP. Indicators measure how well a RBWP has achieved its objectives, which include water quality compliance, pollution load control, project construction, financial inputs, and related management requirements. Second, an interpretive structural model is used to detect the significant factors that affect RBWP implementation. This model can effectively analyze the cause-effect chain and hierarchical relationship among variables. Five groups of factors were identified, namely, plan preparation, water resource endowment, policy, institution, and management. Both qualitative and quantitative methods are employed in the third step to evaluate the extent to which these factors have influenced the execution result of a RBWP, including pre-post contrast, scenario analysis, and correlation analysis. This research then post-evaluated the implementation of the Huai River Basin water pollution control plans (H-RBWPs) over a period of 10 years as a case study. Results showed that the implementation of the H-RBWPs was unsatisfactory during 2001–2005, although it improved during 2006–2010. The poor execution of these plans was partially caused by the underestimation of regional economic development in combination with ineffective industrial structure adjustment policies. Therefore, this case study demonstrates the feasibility and flexibility of the proposed post-evaluation methodology.     

Water environmental planning and management at the watershed scale: A case study of Lake Qilu, China

Water environmental planning and management has become essential for guiding the water pollution control activities. Past water pollution control activities have been site specific, with little thought on water quality standard reaching at the watershed scale. Based on the watershed approach, a seven-step methodological framework for water environmental planning and management was developed. The framework was applied to water environmental planning and management of the Lake Qilu watershed in Yunnan Province, China. Results show that the reduction amount of total nitrogen (TN) under the plan is 1,205 tons per year so that the target of environmental capacity can be reached in 2020. Compared with traditional methods, the framework has its prevalence and could be generalized to analogous watersheds.     

珠江三角洲典型地区蔬菜重金属污染现状研究--以中山市和东莞市为例

以珠江三角洲典型地区中山市与东莞市为研究对象，通过对其大型蔬菜生产基地中10种蔬菜76个样品中重金属元素铬、铅、镉和汞的含量进行分析，初步摸清了珠江三角洲典型地区中山市与东莞市蔬菜中的重金属污染状况，并在不同城市不同蔬菜品种之间的污染程度进行了比较。结果表明，蔬菜中铬、铅、镉、汞的平均含量分别为0．1719、0．0962、0．0257和0.0014mg/kg，其中铬、铅、镉含量超出了国家卫生标准的允许量的蔬菜样品分别有1．3％、13，2％与13．2％；4种重金属在10种蔬菜中的平均残留量由大到小依次为：铬→铅→镉→汞；铅、镉是珠江三角洲典型地区中山市与东莞市蔬菜中的主要污染元素。     

南京城市土壤的特性与重金属污染的研究

研究了南京市城市土壤母质组成、剖面结构、pH值、土壤质地、土壤有机质、重金属元素全量及其不同形态含量等理化性质和分布规律。结果表明，城市土壤母质来源复杂，剖面层次混乱，土壤反应石灰性、粗粒化、有机质含量升高和表聚现象较明显。城市土壤重金属污染较为严重。不同功能区的污染元素和污染程度有显著差异。综合污染程度以老工业区含量最高。依次为老居民区、商业区、风景区、城市广场、开发区。但各功能区土壤重金属的形态分异不明显。城市土壤的随机空间变异十分突出，无论是土壤性质还是重金属污染积累都如此。城市中可能存在一些高度污染的岛状区域，这在城市环境质量上必须予以密切关注。     

The effect of land clearing on rainfall and fresh water resources in Western Australia: a multi-functional sustainability analysis

It is widely recognised that southwest Western Australia has experienced a decline in rainfall over the last 40 years. It is generally thought that this decline is due to natural periodic variations and changes induced by global warming, but recently evidence has emerged suggesting that a substantial part of the decline may be due to extensive logging close to the coast to make way for housing developments and the clearing of native vegetation for wheat planting on the higher ground. We compare coastal and inland rainfall to show empirically that 55% to 62% of the observed rainfall decline is the result of land clearing alone. Using the index of sustainable functionality, we show that the economic consequences associated with this change of land use on fresh water resource availability have been underestimated to date and disproportionately affect the environment and poorest members of the population.