The inclusion of migrants in health impact assessments: A scoping review

This article reports the findings of a scoping review assessing the extent and ways in which migrants have been included in health impact assessments (HIAs) and HIA evaluations worldwide. A total of 117 HIAs and two HIA evaluations were included. Only 14% of hand-searched HIAs mentioned migrants, 5% analysed migrants and only 2% included them in their recommendations. Nonetheless, migrants would be expected to be part of the analysis based on the reasons for which migrants were most commonly mentioned. Although the majority of HIAs included in the review mentioned migrants in baseline conditions and impact analysis steps, migrants were seldom included in recommendations. Furthermore, the use of frameworks or tools guiding the completion of an HIA was negatively associated with the inclusion of migrants in recommendations. This is a pivotal risk of frameworks not mentioning migrants. Although workshops and stakeholder engagement were a frequent way of including migrants in HIAs, this usually involved organizations representing migrants, and only seldom included members of the migrant community themselves. The main barriers to including migrants in the HIA impact analysis were the lack of available data on migrants and the significant additional resources required to gather and analyse additional data on migrants. Guidance is needed on ways to optimally include migrants in HIAs and ensure that recommendations for mitigation measures are optimal.     

Water quality associated public health risk in Bo, Sierra Leone

Human health depends on reliable access to safe drinking water, but in many developing countries only a limited number of wells and boreholes are available. Many of these water resources are contaminated with biological or chemical pollutants. The goal of this study was to examine water access and quality in urban Bo, Sierra Leone. A health census and community mapping project in one neighborhood in Bo identified the 36 water sources used by the community. A water sample was taken from each water source and tested for a variety of microbiological and physicochemical substances. Only 38.9% of the water sources met World Health Organization (WHO) microbial safety requirements based on fecal coliform levels. Physiochemical analysis indicated that the majority (91.7%) of the water sources met the requirements set by the WHO. In combination, 25% of these water resources met safe drinking water criteria. No variables associated with wells were statistically significant predictors of contamination. This study indicated that fecal contamination is the greatest health risk associated with drinking water. There is a need to raise hygiene awareness and implement inexpensive methods to reduce fecal contamination and improve drinking water safety in Bo, Sierra Leone.     

Assessing health impacts in complex eco-epidemiological settings in the humid tropics: Modular baseline health surveys

The quantitative assessment of health impacts has been identified as a crucial feature for realising the full potential of health impact assessment (HIA). In settings where demographic and health data are notoriously scarce, but there is a broad range of ascertainable ecological, environmental, epidemiological and socioeconomic information, a diverse toolkit of data collection strategies becomes relevant for the mainly small-area impacts of interest. We present a modular, cross-sectional baseline health survey study design, which has been developed for HIA of industrial development projects in the humid tropics. The modular nature of our toolkit allows our methodology to be readily adapted to the prevailing eco-epidemiological characteristics of a given project setting. Central to our design is a broad set of key performance indicators, covering a multiplicity of health outcomes and determinants at different levels and scales. We present experience and key findings from our modular baseline health survey methodology employed in 14 selected sentinel sites within an iron ore mining project in the Republic of Guinea. We argue that our methodology is a generic example of rapid evidence assembly in difficult-to-reach localities, where improvement of the predictive validity of the assessment and establishment of a benchmark for longitudinal monitoring of project impacts and mitigation efforts is needed.     

Water quality assessment: surface water sources used for drinking and irrigation in Zaria,Nigeria are a public health hazard

We assessed the quality and pollution status of source surface waters in Zaria, Nigeria by monitoring the nature, cause and extent of pollution in Samaru stream, Kubanni River and Kubanni dam over a period of 10 months, between March and December 2002. A total of 228 water samples was collected from 12 sites and analysed for a total of ten physicochemical and one bacteriological quality indicators, using standard methods. Aesthetic water quality impairment parameters were also observed. The mean values of most water quality parameters were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in both the stream and river than in the dam. There was no significant correlation between faecal coliform counts (FCC) and water temperature (in the range 15–33°C); pH (5.77–7.32); and turbidity (1.4–567 NTU). The high FCC ranged from 2.0 × 10¹ to 1.6 × 10⁶ MPN/100 ml and exceeded the WHO standards for drinking water and water used for fresh-produce irrigation, and correlated positively (P < 0.05) with conductivity (in the range 68–1,029 μS/cm); TDS (10.0–70.0 mg/l); TSS (10.0–70.0 mg/l); Cl (7.5–181 mg/l); PO₄⁻P (0.01–0.41 mg/l); NO₃⁻N (0.6–3.8 mg/l) and BOD₅ (0.1–14.9 mg/l). The main pollution sources were municipal wastewater, stormwater runoffs, the ABU sewage treatment plant, abattoir effluents and irrigation farms treated with chemical fertilisers. We conclude that these water bodies are potentially hazardous to public health and that proper sewage treatment and river quality monitoring are needed to warn against hazards to public health.     

Effect of dibenzopyrene measurement on assessing air quality in Beijing air and possible implications for human health

Size fractionated particulate matter (PM) was collected in summer and winter from Beijing, China for the characterization of an expanded list of PAHs and evaluation of air pollution metrics. Summertime ΣPAHs on PM was 14.6 ± 29(PM 1.5), 0.88 ± 0.49(PM 1.5-7.2) and 0.29 ± 0.076(PM 7.2) ng m(-3) air while wintertime concentrations were 493 ± 206(PM 1.5), 26.7 ± 14(PM 1.5-7.2) and 5.3 ± 2.5(PM 7.2) ng m(-3) air. Greater than 90% of the carcinogenic PAHs were concentrated on PM(1.5). Dibenzopyrene isomers made up a significant portion (～30%) of the total carcinogenic PAH load during the winter. To our knowledge, this is the first report of dibenzopyrenes in the Beijing atmosphere and among the few studies that report these highly potent PAHs in ambient particulate matter. Lifetime risk calculations indicated that 1 out of 10,000 to over 6 out of 100 Beijing residents may have an increased risk of lung cancer due to PAH concentration. Over half of the lifetime risk was attributed to Σdibenzopyrenes. The World Health Organization and Chinese daily PM(10) standard was exceeded on each day of the study, however, PAH limits were only exceeded during the winter. The outcomes of the air pollution metrics were highly dependent on the individual PAHs measured and seasonal variation.     

Seasonal and spatial variation of reservoir water quality in the southwest of Ethiopia

This research investigated the spatiotemporal variation of water quality in the Gilgel Gibe reservoir, Ethiopia, using physicochemical water quality parameters. Nonparametric tests and multivariate statistical techniques were used to evaluate data sets measured during dry and rainy seasons. Electrical conductivity (EC), pH, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD₅), total phosphorus (TP), total nitrogen (TN), nitrate (NO₃^?), total dissolved solids (TDSs), and total suspended solids (TSSs) were all significantly different among seasons (Mann-Whitney U test, p?<?0.01). In addition, principal component analysis distinguished dry season samples from wet season samples. The dry season was positively associated with EC, pH, TP, TN, NO₃^?, TDS, and TSS and negatively associated with BOD₅. The wet season was in contrast associated with high values of turbidity, soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP), water temperature, and dissolved oxygen (DO). Within the reservoir, spatial variation was observed for some of the water quality parameters, with significant difference at p?=?<?0.05. Overall, high nutrient concentrations suggest eutrophic conditions, likely due to high nutrient loading from the watershed. Levels of TSS, attributed to inputs from tributaries, have been excessive enough to inhibit light penetration and thus have a considerable impact on the aquatic food web. Our findings indicate that the reservoir is at high risk of eutrophication and siltation, and hence, urgent action should target the planning and implementation of integrated watershed management for this and similar reservoirs in the region.     

Methodology for designing air quality monitoring networks: I. Theoretical aspects

An objective methodology is presented for determining the number and disposition of ambient air quality stations in a monitoring network for the primary purpose of compliance with air quality standards. The methodolgy utilizes a data base with real or simulated data from an air quality dispersion model for application with a two-step process for ascertaining the optimal monitoring network. In the first step, the air quality patterns in the data base are collapsed into a single composite pattern through a figure-of-merit (FOM) concept. The most desirable locations are ranked and identified using the resultant FOM fields. In the second step the network configuration is determined on the basis of the concept of spheres of influence (SOI) developed from cutoff values of spatial correlation coefficients between potential monitoring sites and adjacent locations. The minimum number of required stations is then determined by deletion of lower-ranked stations whose SOIs overlap. The criteria can be set to provide coverage of less than some fixed, user-provided percentage of the coverage of tha SOIs of the higher ranked stations and for some desired level of minimum detection capability of concentration fluctuations.The methodology is applied in a companion paper (McElroy et al., 1986) to the Las Vegas, Nevada, metropolitan area for the pollutant carbon monoxide.Although the research described in this article has been funded wholly or in part by the United States Environmental Protection Agency through Contract No. 68-03-2446 to Systems Applications, Inc., it has not been subjected to Agency review and therefore does not necessarily reflect the views of the Agency and no official endorsement should be inferred.     

The institutional dynamics behind limited human health considerations in environmental assessments of coal mining projects in New South Wales,Australia

Coal extraction remains supported in many countries despite a global context challenging the industry. A large evidence base links coal with negative consequences for human health. Environmental assessments (EAs) are regulated in nearly every country to assess and set conditions for large industry projects, including coal mines, but tend to exclude health impacts. This study investigated the institutional dynamics surrounding the inclusion of health in coal mining EAs in New South Wales, Australia. Semi-structured interviews with varied stakeholders were supported by a review of legislation, relevant case law and media analysis. Using insights from theories on power and institutions the findings show how EA practice is influenced by the politicization of coal mining that excludes potentially negative narratives surrounding the known human health impacts of coal. Poor EA practice is compounded by legislative ambiguity and lack of conceptual understanding about assessing health. EA's legislative purpose of approving projects undermines confidence that a balanced assessment of impacts has been made. EA is seen as a pro-industry process that disempowers those with dissenting voices. The research explains how the institutional dynamics of a policy process like EA challenge its potential to meaningfully engage with the impact of coal mining on human health.     

Air quality and respiratory health in Delhi

Delhi is an instructive location for studying the impact of air pollution since it is a rapidly expanding centre of government, trade commerce and industry. We have made an attempt to (1) determine the association between environmental pollution and respiratory morbidity in Delhi for the period 1998–2004, (2) assess the impact on hospital admission of the implementation of recent governmental regulations and (3) calculate the relative risk of hospitalization due to respiratory ailments caused by air pollutants. Seven hospitals from different parts of Delhi were selected. The pollution profiles of these areas were assessed and subsequently Poisson regression model was performed for the patient population. There was a remarkable decrease in monthly average concentration of sulphur dioxide (from 17.9 to 11.1 μg m⁻³) and increase in monthly average concentration of nitrogen dioxide (from 34.2 to 49.1 μg m⁻³) after the newly introduced regulations. Particulates were observed to have marginal fall in their concentration but still remained above the permissible limits. Gaseous pollutants, in spite of being at a level lower than the permissible level, showed more consistent significant association with respiratory admissions. The relative risks of hospitalization due to respiratory diseases were in the range of 1.07–2.82 in residential cum commercial areas. Comparative study of pre and post new stringent governmental regulation showed significant positive association of NO₂ with respiratory disorders in southern (RR: 1.10; CI: 1.09–1.12) and northern regions (RR: 1.33; CI: 1.27–1.39), both mixed use areas. In spite of the improvement in the air quality, the associated health effects were found to be substantial.     

Water quality index for agricultural systems in Northwest Uruguay

Agricultural systems have experienced rapid expansion and intensification in the last several decades. In Uruguay, since the beginning of 2000, the most common cropping systems have included soybeans. Currently, this crop is expanding towards lowlands traditionally occupied by rice in rotation with pastures. However, the environmental effects of agricultural intensification and diversification are not well known. Thus, some indices have been proposed to quantify the changes in agricultural production systems and assess water quality. The main goal of this study was to develop a water quality index (WQI) to assess the impacts of the diversification of rice production systems in northwest Uruguay. The study was carried out in an agricultural basin where other summer crops have been incorporated in the rice-pasture sequence. Agriculture intensification and crop diversification indices were calculated using information provided by farmers. Water samples were collected downstream of the production area before crop sowing and after crop harvest (2008–2009 to 2010–2011 and 2016–2017 to 2017–2018). Biochemical oxygen demand, nitrates, total phosphorus, fecal coliforms, and total suspended solids were the variables that mainly explained the effects of the agricultural activities on water quality. The proposed water quality index included these unweighted variables, which allowed for the pre-sowing and post-harvest to be differentiated, as well as the degree of diversification. Therefore, the proposed WQI constitutes a tool that can be used to evaluate the water quality in an agricultural basin. Likewise, it can be used to select agricultural sequences that generate the least possible impacts on the associated water resources.     

Comparative assessments of VOC emission rates and associated health risks from wastewater treatment processes

With the growing concern regarding emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), the relationship between the VOC emission rates and the associated public health risks has been rarely discussed. The objective of this study was to examine and compare the VOC emission rates and cancer and non-cancer risks by inhalation intake, using a municipal WWTP in China as an example, with respect to the effects of treatment technologies, VOC species, and seasonal variation. Given the treatment technology considered, the emission rates of VOCs in this study were estimated by means of mass balance or calculated on the molecular level. From the viewpoints of both emission rates and cancer and non-cancer risks, sedimentation was the treatment technology with the highest health risks to the workers. Slightly lower VOC emission rates and health risks than those for sedimentation were observed in anaerobic treatment. Although the aeration significantly enhanced the VOC emission rates in the aerobic treatment process, the associated health risks were limited due to the low VOC concentrations in the gas phase, which were likely attributed to the strong mixing and dilution with fresh air by aeration. Amongst the VOCs investigated, benzene was the VOC with both a relatively high emission rate and health risk, while trichloroethylene possessed a high emission rate but the lowest health risk. Without strong interfacial aeration and turbulence between the water and atmosphere, the effects of treatment technology and seasonal variation on the health risks might be connected to the VOC emission rates, while the effect of VOC species depended considerably on the respective cancer slope factors and reference concentrations; the employment of aeration provided a different conclusion in which the emission rates were enhanced without a significant increase in the related cancer risks. These findings can provide insight into future health risk management and reduction strategies for workers in WWTPs.     

Water quality planning and management for Dapeng bay,China

The pollution sources around the Dapeng bay and the current water quality of the bay are presented. Two-dimensional mathematical models for modelling the tidal flow and pollutant concentration fields have been developed and used to predict the water quality impact generated by coastal economic development of the area. Water quality planning for the bay is conducted and some managerial measures for environmental protection are put forward. The results show that at present there is minimal pollution, and the water quality is good. If the region around the bay is to be developed as proposed, it would have minor impact on the marine water quality. The aim is to have the water quality higher than that of Class II standard in National Marine Water Quality Standard of China (NMWQSC). In order to maintain the present condition of the bay, the ecological equilibrium around the bay must be preserved.     

Water quality trend analysis for the Karoon River in Iran

The Karoon River basin, with a basin area of 67,000 km², is located in the southern part of Iran. Monthly measurements of the discharge and the water quality variables have been monitored at the Gatvand and Khorramshahr stations of the Karoon River on a monthly basis for the period 1967–2005 and 1969–2005 for Gatvand and Khorramshahr stations, respectively. In this paper the time series of monthly values of water quality parameters and the discharge were analyzed using statistical methods and the existence of trends and the evaluation of the best fitted models were performed. The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test was used to select the theoretical distribution which best fitted the data. Simple regression was used to examine the concentration-time relationships. The concentration-time relationships showed better correlation in Khorramshahr station than that of Gatvand station. The exponential model expresses better concentration – time relationships in Khorramshahr station, but in Gatvand station the logarithmic model is more fitted. The correlation coefficients are positive for all of the variables in Khorramshahr station also in Gatvand station all of the variables are positive except magnesium (Mg²⁺), bicarbonates () and temporary hardness which shows a decreasing relationship. The logarithmic and the exponential models describe better the concentration-time relationships for two stations.     

Biofuel use assessments in Africa: Implications for greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation strategies

The energy balances of most African countries suggest that biofuels (woodfuel, crop and wood residues, and dung) constitute the largest share of total energy consumption (up to 97% in some sub-Saharan Africa countries). There is, however, an increasing scarcity of woodfuel (fuelwood and charcoal), the major biofuel, and a feared increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with biofuel combustion. The extent of GHG emissions is estimated from biofuel consumption levels that are in turn based on methodologies that might be inaccurate. A questionnaire, supplemented by informal interviews, are used to collect data, yielding information regarding end-uses, technologies used, scale of consumption, determinants of fuel consumption, and interfuel substitution (among other parameters). The survey revealed that cooking is the major end-use, with other common uses, such as space and water heating. Improved stoves that provide better combustion efficiency and, thus, reduce woodfuel consumption have not been widely disseminated and are associated with higher methane emissions than open fires. More than 90% of the households in Africa use open fires. Consumption is presented as per capita for households and as products and quantity of fuel in the small scale industries, commercial, and public sectors. Among the determinants for biofuel consumption are affordability, availability of the fuel, and interfuel substitutions. Flaws in estimating biofuel consumption yield large uncertainties in GHG emissions, with implications for the development of policies on energy planning and environmental protection. However, the application of scenarios can guide policy formulation.     

Water quality analysis of surface water: a Web approach

The chemical, physical and biological characteristics of water with respect to its suitability describe its quality. Concentration of pesticides or fertilisers degrades the water quality and affects marine life. A comprehensive environmental data information system helps to perform and complete common tasks in less time with less effort for data verification, data calculations, graph generation, and proper monitoring, which helps in the further mitigation step. In this paper, focus is given to a web-based system developed to express the quality of water in the imprecise environment of monitoring data. Water samples were analyzed for eight different surface water parameters, in which four parameters such as pH, dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, and fecal coliform were used for the water quality index calculation following MPCB Water Quality Standards of class A-II for best designated use. The analysis showed that river points in a particular year were in very bad category with certainty level of 0–38 % which is unsuitable for drinking purposes; samples in bad category had certainty level that ranged from 38 to 50 %; samples in medium to good category had certainty levels from 50 to 100 %, and the remaining samples were in good to excellent category, suitable for drinking purposes, with certainty levels from 63 to 100 %.     

Water quality of least-impaired lakes in eastern and southern Arkansas

A three-phased study identified one least-impaired (reference) lake for each of four Arkansas lake classifications: three classifications in the Mississippi Alluvial Plain (MAP) ecoregion and a fourth classification in the South Central Plains (SCP) ecoregion. Water quality at three of the least-impaired lakes generally was comparable and also was comparable to water quality from Kansas and Missouri reference lakes and Texas least-impaired lakes. Water quality of one least-impaired lake in the MAP ecoregion was not as good as water quality in other least-impaired lakes in Arkansas or in the three other states: a probable consequence of all lakes in that classification having a designated use as a source of irrigation water. Chemical and physical conditions for all four lake classifications were at times naturally harsh as limnological characteristics changed temporally. As a consequence of allochthonous organic material, oxbow lakes isolated within watersheds comprised of swamps were susceptible to low dissolved oxygen concentrations to the extent that conditions would be limiting to some aquatic biota. Also, pH in lakes in the SCP ecoregion was <6.0, a level exceeding current Arkansas water-quality standards but typical of black water systems. Water quality of the deepest lakes exceeded that of shallow lakes. N/P ratios and trophic state indices may be less effective for assessing water quality for shallow lakes (<2 m) than for deep lakes because there is an increased exposure of sediment (and associated phosphorus) to disturbance and light in the former.     

Contaminated drinking water and rural health perspectives in Rajasthan, India: an overview of recent case studies

Access to safe drinking water is an important issue of health and development at national, regional, and local levels. The concept of safe drinking water assumes greater significance in countries like India where the majority of the population lives in villages with bare infrastructures and poor sanitation facilities. This review presents an overview of drinking water quality in rural habitations of northern Rajasthan, India. Although fluoride is an endemic problem to the groundwater of this region, recently, other anthropogenic chemicals has also been reported in the local groundwater. Recent case studies indicate that about 95% of sites of this region contain a higher fluoride level in groundwater than the maximum permissible limit as decided by the Bureau of Indian Standards. Nitrate (as NO $_{3}^{\,\,-})$ contamination has appeared as another anthropogenic threat to some intensively cultivable rural habitations of this region. Biological contamination has appeared as another issue of unsafe drinking water resources in rural areas of the state. Recent studies have claimed a wide variety of pathogenic bacteria including members of the family Enterobacteriaceae in local drinking water resources. Overall, the quality of drinking water in this area is not up to the safe level, and much work is still required to establish a safe drinking water supply program in this area.