Electrostatic precipitator emission and opacity performance control through rapper strategy

The opacity and emission performance of two “identical” cold-side precipitators at a power plant utilizing a Western coal source was investigated through an extensive test program. The test program included establishment of outlet emission versus opacity correlations for the two “identical” units, correlation of rapper strategy (frequency and amplitude) with opacity, and correlation of power-off rapping strategy with opacity. Analysis of the test program data demonstrates that the opacity-emission correlations from the two “identical” units can be significantly different. The potential reasons for the differences between the two units are identified and examined in light of the test program data. Strong correlation of opacity with rapping strategy was developed from the test program. Results demonstrate that an automatic power-off rapping technique can significantly enhance precipitator performance on ash from Western coal.     

Criteria for designing electrostatic precipitators

This paper discusses the concepts of effective migration velocity and specific collector area as derived from the Deutsch equation. These two factors are commonly used as a means of specifying plant size and comparing proposals by different suppliers.It is demonstrated that effective migration velocity is not a constant dependent only on the fuel, being subject to large variations according to various features of the design of the precipitator. It is also shown that specific collector area cannot be used without at the same time considering the contact time of the gases in the electrostatic field.The removal of dust by a precipitator is carried out in two stages. The dust is first deposited on the collecting electrode, and a layer of significant thickness must be allowed to form so that when, in the second stage, it is dislodged by rapping, the layer breaks into agglomerated masses sufficiently large to fall into the hoppers below the collecting electrodes before being carried by the moving gas stream into the outlet flue. This requires that the frequency of rapping of each field of the precipitator shall be set at the correct rate according to the concentration of dust entering the field.Currently much stress is being placed on the intensity of the rapping blow and there is a tendency to specify increasing values of this blow. Due to the necessity of allowing a layer of dust to form, no increase in rapping intensity can overcome the effect of highly resistive dust. While the rapping force must be enough to shear the dust layer, any increase above this level is likely to result in the breakdown of agglomerates with an increase in dust emission and may also cause metal fatigue problems.     

Precipitator upgrading and fuel control program for particulate compliance at Pennsylvania power and light company

Two cold side electrostatic precipitators handling low sulfur eastern bituminous coal flyash were upgraded from 94% to 99.4% efficiency in order to meet a particulate compliance limit of 0.1 lb/MMBtu (43 ng/J).The comprehensive upgrading was the result of a 2 year research and testing program during which various aspects of flue gas conditioning, electrical energization, rapping, coal quality control, and gas distribution were independently tested on three similar precipitators. The ensuing upgrading program included the installation of hardware for maximum performance and reliability as well as flue gas conditioning and a fuel ash control program.A cost and reliability analysis of the upgrading program as compared with the installation of an additional series precipitator is included.     

Application of slipstreamed air pollution control devices on waste-as-fuel processes

The recovery of energy from the combustion of municipal solid wastes is becoming an attractive alternative as landfill space becomes scarce and the availability of fossil fuels decreases. Particulate emissions from “waste-as-fuel” processes, however, may differ significantly in chemical and physical properties from particulate emissions produced by firing only coal. Such differences can affect the design and operation of air pollution control equipment. Presented in this paper are the results of a 2-month test program at Ames, Iowa, with a mobile electrostatic precipitator (ESP) and a mobile scrubber supplied by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory (IERL), Research Triangle Park. PEDCo Environmental, Inc., and Acurex Corporation jointly conducted the test program to examine the effect of burning refuse-derived fuel (RDF) on particulate and heavy metal control efficiencies. The mobile ESP was used only as a primary control device, whereas the mobile scrubber was tested both upstream and downstream of the existing full-scale ESP. This paper also presents a status report on a PEDCo test program with a pilot fabric filter at Ames.     

Precipitator energization utilizing an energy conserving pulse generator

The performance of a conventional two-electrode type precipitator collecting high resistivity dust can be improved by pulse energization. Pulses of a suitable duration and repetition rate superimposed on the DC voltage permit higher peak-voltage without sparkover, improve particle charging and current distribution, and allow independent regulation of the precipitator voltage and current. A considerable quantity of energy, however, is required for each pulse to charge the precipitator to the pulse voltage level. For high pulse voltages only a minor part of this energy is necessary for the discharge current in the precipitator. For reasons of economy, the recovery of the energy stored in the precipitator capacitance during each pulse is therefore extremely important for pulse energization of large precipitators. An energy conserving pulse generator with pulse transformer, a pulse initiating switch element, and a feed-back diode for the energy recovery is described. The design and the instrumentation of a pilot precipitator specially developed for the comparison of different kinds of precipitator energization are outlined. The ability of the applied pulse energization system for controlling the corona discharge current independently of the precipitator voltage is demonstrated. Further, results from field tests showing the performance of the system under operating conditions are presented.     

Tubular electrostatic precipitators of two-stage design

Although the “two stage” electrostatic precipitator concept was first developed in 1910, until recently most of their use was confined to in-plant air cleaning. In the last decade, plate type designs have been modified to make them suitable for industrial applications involving organic emissions, most notably in asphalt saturating, plastic curing, food processing, printing, textile finishing, and heat treating industries. However, plate type designs are inadequate in applications where very high loading and/or high particulate content are involved.Tubular design with wider spacing and higher voltages incorporates the best features of both the single stage and two stage type precipitators. These units have been used in molybdenum roasting, zirconium calcining, ammonia scrubbing of oxides of sulfur, meat broiling, foundry exhaust, etc.The paper discusses design parameters, field test data, and operating data on these units. Comparisons with single-stage type precipitators are made wherever applicable. Advantages and disadvantages of two stage precipitators are also discussed.     

Consultative mechanisms in Sweden's environment protection policy

The institutional and legislative framework of Swedish environmental protection is presented with special reference to the role of consultation in the policy process. The functions and duties of the National Environment Protection Board, the Franchise Board for Environment Protection, the Environment Advisory Board, and the Product Control Board are outlined. The main thrust of the 1969 Environment Protection Act, the 1972 Hazardous Products Control Act, and the environmental impact assessment requirements of the Planning and Building Legislation is presented. The character of consultation within this framework is also discussed, with reference to the role of public participation and of organized regulated interests. It is found that the main functions of consultation in policy-making are “feeding back on former policy,” “foreseeing future policies,” and “canvassing for consensus.” In the stage of policy clarification, consultation is found to be a means of “catering for compliance” and “creating coherence.” In policy implementation, consultation is an important means of gathering information from parties possibly affected by implementative decisions.     

Control of salt laden particulate emissions from hogged fuel boilers

This paper presents the results of an evaluation of excessive salt emissions from 16 hogged fuel boilers in Washington, Oregon, and Alaska. Logs transported or stored in sea water, absorb substantial amounts of salt which is noncombustible, and is emitted as a fine particulate when the hogged fuel is burned, contributing to opacity and particulate emissions. Control measures considered are fuel pretreatment, combustion modification, use of conventional particulate control devices (electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, and wet scrubbers), and several novel particulate control devices.The best available control technology appears to be a mechanical collector-fabric filter combination; some electrostatic scrubber type devices have also shown excellent capability.     

Evaluation of the George Neal electrostatic precipitator

The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) is currently supporting a major research program characterizing the performance of high efficiency electrostatic precipitators (ESP). One such effort evaluating the George Neal ESP of Iowa Public Service Company is described in this paper.Results show that under well tuned conditions the ESP overall collection efficiency was 99.7% at a specific collecting area of 745 ft²/kacfm (147 m²/m³/s) (520 MW) with associated mass concentrations of 0.025 lb/10⁶ Btu and stack opacity of 4.6%. The boiler outlet size distribution was found to be bimodal with submicron and large particle peaks at 0.2 and 5 microns diameter, respectively. Consequently, an apparent bimodal fractional efficiency curve results with efficiencies of 99.6%, 98%, and 90% measured for 20, 2 and 0.2 micron diameter particles, respectively. Rapping reentrainment losses were found to be insignificant except during episodes of high ash hopper levels resulting from a malfunctioning ash removal system, when large rapping puffs were observed. In addition, outlet emissions increased dramatically to 0.08 lb/10⁶ Btu (34 ng/J) during these periods, suggesting that an emission level more representative of daily operation lies somewhere between 0.025–0.08 lb/10⁶ Btu (10.8–34 ng/J).     

Pilot field study: Carbon monoxide exposure monitoring in the general population

A pilot field study was conducted with nine members of the general public to measure carbon monoxide exposure using personal monitors. The principal study objectives were to design and evaluate the research protocol and the instrumentation performance for application to the conduct of a large-scale personal monitoring program. Integrated carbon monoxide exposure was monitored and recorded according to type of activity such as “commuting” or “at work” for approximately 45 days by each subject. All subjects except one were able to handle both the equipment and data recording requirements with no significant problems. Actual data recording responsibilities consumed less than 10 min daily. The data consisted of 355 person-days each over 6-h duration, and weekdays only, from which 8-h average personal exposure levels could be computed. The 9 ppm (μL/L) ambient air quality standard was exceeded on 22 person-days. Elevated carbon monoxide concentrations during the commuting activity were frequently associated with the exceedences.     

Ozone control strategies in the United States

Conventional control strategies for volatile organic compounds (VOCs), a precursor to ozone, are identified. The control measures have been adopted by states in their efforts to attain the national ambient air quality standard for ozone by statutorily mandated deadlines. An inventory of viable control approaches for VOCs is presented, rather than a discussion of the approaches' comparative merits or of available alternatives. Focus is placed upon the technologies and control measures that U.S. EPA has identified as “reasonably available”, considering such criteria as effectiveness, costs, and associated energy and environmental impacts. These regulatory approaches include such strategies as vapor control in gasoline marketing, low solvent technologies and/or add-on control equipment for surface coating operations, and vehicle inspection and maintenance programs. By adopting these and additional control measures, as required, most states are projecting attainment of the ozone standard by 1987.     

Air pollution control policy in the Federal Republic of Germany as a strategy for dealing with environmental risks

The paper describes criteria for the development of energy systems, with emphasis on “environmental compatibility.” It outlines the main objectives underlying political and regulatory action in the Federal Republic of Germany to ensure this compatibility through the management of environmental risks. The air pollution control policy in the Federal Republic of Germany is presented as a strategy for risk management, focusing on its philosophy and on the recent ordinances concerning air pollution control in large firing (combustion) installations.     

Interactions between diesel emissions and gaseous copollutants in photochemical air pollution: Some health implications

A complete assessment of the health effects of diesel emissions must take into account the possible chemical transformations (and associated biological impacts) of particulate organic matter (POM) due to reactions with the many gaseous copollutants which have now been unambiguously demonstrated to be present in atmospheres burdened by photochemical air pollution. These copollutants include the “trace” species, nitric (HNO₃) and nitrous (HONO) acids, the nitrate radical (NO₃), formaldehyde (H₂CO) and formic acid (HCOOH), as well as the criteria pollutants, ozone (O₃) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂). Techniques for establishing the atmospheric concentrations of the trace pollutants (and their spatial and temporal variations) are briefly described, and we present results of investigations into the reactions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) coated on filters and exposed to ambient concentrations of O₃ and NO₂. Environmental health implications of these results are discussed and include the potential for sampling “artifacts” and their possible effects on the correlation (or lack thereof) between ambient PAH levels and urban lung cancer rates, as well as the problems associated with understanding the appropriate POM “dose” to be employed in animal testing and assessments of impacts on human health.     

A study of effects of ambient urban air pollution using personal samplers; a preliminary report

Air pollution has been associated with an increased incidence of respiratory disease. However, significant differences may exist between air pollution levels measured at conventional fixed monitoring stations and actual levels inhaled by a subject. Furthermore, studies of effects of air pollution might best be done using asthmatics as study subjects, since they have irritable airways. This is a preliminary report of a study using a control and asthmatic group in which effects of air pollution are assessed by sympton and medication diaries and simple pulmonary function tests. Air pollution exposure is measured using a small portable sampler for particulates, SO₂ and NO₂; these samplers are carried by the subject (“personal”) and are situated inside and outside the home. Levels obtained are compared to data obtained from the same type of sampler located at a fixed monitoring station. Preliminary analysis of the data shows that the levels of pollutants are low and there are significant differences between the four air pollution measurements, with weak correlations among the various measurements. In this preliminary report, change in pulmonary function during the day correlates only with personal NO₂ measurements. This suggests the need for estimating air pollution exposure using “personal” samplers, when investigating health effects.     

Control of fine particle emissions with wet electrostatic precipitation

This paper presents the results, both pilot and full-scale, of experience with the application of wet electrostatic precipitation technology for the control of fine particle emissions from industrial processes. Performance data involving the collection of such difficult-to-clean emissions as a sulfuric acid mist and recovery boiler salt fume are presented. The measured wet precipitator performance parameters (e.g., SCA, effective migration velocity) are compared to those reported in literature for dry precipitators operating on equivalent processes. Particular emphasis is directed toward examining wet electrostatic precipitator performance levels in controlling very high concentrations of submicron fume with the accompanying problem of space charge corona quenching. Relationships between these performance data and specific wet precipitator operating parameters such as operating voltage and current density are also examined.     

Olfactory and chemical characterization of indoor air. Towards a psychophysical model for air quality

The relationship between the odor strength of total air samples and the odor strengths of the constituents was investigated in three field experiments in an office building and a new preschool. The odor strength was scaled by magnitude estimation according to a master scale principle which results in comparable values for the total and the constituent odors. Between 60 and 120 chemical components were detected by GC/FID in the indoor air samples (N = 66). Most (81%) of the detected components in an air sample were odorous, even though most of them were of the low concentrations. By a method of pattern analysis, chemical as well as odor patterns of indoor air were found to be characteristics of different buildings. From the odor patterns (POG), the “odor print” of the outdoor air associated with the buildings was also recognized in the indoor air. Thus, the “odor print” of an air sample is different from its “chemical print”. A model was found that predicts the overall odor strength of an air sample from the number of FID-detected components most frequently reported to have a strong odor.     

Theoretical methods for computing electrical conditions in wire-plate electrostatic precipitators

A new semi-empirical, approximate theory for predicting electrical conditions is described. In the approximate theory, analytical expressions are derived for calculating voltage-current characteristics and electric potential, electric field, and space charge density distributions. Comparisons of numerical and approximate solutions over a wide range of possible precipitator geometries and electrical operating points indicates that for practical purposes the approximate theory can be used in lieu of the more rigorous numerical theory. This saves large amounts of computer time and makes possible hand calculator usage. Recent in situ gaseous ion mobility data which are needed in the models are presented. For coal fired power plants, the reduced effective ion mobility in positive corona is found to be 1.6 times that for negative corona. Approaches for describing particulate space charge effects in the gas and electrical conditions in the collected particulate layer are briefly discussed.     

Ventilation requirements in occupied spaces during smoking and nonsmoking occupancy

Ventilation requirements in occupied spaces have traditionally derived largely from odor control. The requirements have rested on the notion that an environment that seems subjectively acceptable to a visitor will in fact be healthful and comfortable for both visitor and occupant alike. Ventilation requirements have derived secondarily from criterion concentrations of notable contaminants (e.g., carbon dioxide). The present investigation looked again at both sensory (odor, irritation) and physical criteria of acceptability, paying particular attention to the difference between smoking and nonsmoking occupancy in a well-controlled environmental chamber. More than 200 persons (visitors) made judgments of odor intensity and acceptability under various conditions of occupancy (up to 12 nonsmoking occupants; a temperature of up to 25.5°C; up to 16 cigarettes smoked per hour). The results implied that under nonsmoking conditions and moderate humidity only about 7.5 cfm (3.8 L sec⁻¹) of fresh air per occupant sufficed to satisfy visitors, but that under smoking conditions at least 5 times as much fresh air is necessary. Our estimate of ventilation requirements for smoking were derived in part from measurements of carbon monoxide and total suspended particulate (TSP) mass concentration. Levels of TSP achieved during realistic smoking and ventilation rates exceeded levels deemed acceptable outdoors. Surfaces in the chamber played an important role in the elimination of particles, presumably via adsorption. Use of an electrostatic precipitator could keep TSP levels under control. Nevertheless, it remains to be seen whether control of TSP will eliminate the need for enormous ventilation for odor control during smoking occupancy.     

Efficient ventilation in office rooms

Results from a two-box model for calculation of tracer gas concentrations in rooms are given and consequences of different definitions of “ventilation efficiency” are discussed. Results from three different series of experiments are presented. The first two series were dilution experiments; examples of the results are given and discussed. The third series of tests was performed with one person working at a desk in the test room. Above the person;s head, a tracer gas (N₂O) was injected into the convection plume, with as low momentum as possible. Starting with zero concentration, a test continued until steady-state conditions were established for the concentration levels in the different parts of the room. The tests included simulation of summer, autumn/spring, and winter daytime conditions. The results indicate a tendency towards lower tracer gas concentrations in the “breathing zone” when the supply air (typical flow rate equivalent to two air changes per hour) is brought into the room at a low level as compared to a high level close to the ceiling. The exhaust air terminal device in all tests was situated high in the “corridor” wall.     

Low-infiltration housing in Rochester, New York: A study of air-exchange rates and indoor air quality

A sample of 58 occupied homes in Rochester, NY, most of which incorporated special builder-designed weatherization components, were studied to assess (1) the effectiveness of construction techniques designed to reduce air leakage; (2) the indoor air quality and air-exchange rates in selected airtight houses, and (3) the impact on indoor air quality of mechanical ventilation systems employing air-to-air heat exchangers. The “specific leakage area” was measured in each house using the fan pressurization technique. Houses built with polyethylene vapor barriers and joint-sealing were as a group 50% tighter than a similar group of houses without such components. Mechanical ventilation systems with air-to-air heat exchangers were installed in nine relatively airtight houses, some of which had gas stoves and/or tobacco smoking occupants. Air-exchange rates and indoor concentrations of radon (Rn), formaldehyde (HCHO), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and humidity were measured in each house for 1-week periods with and without mechanical ventilation. More detailed measurements, including concentrations of carbon monoxide and inhalable particulates, were made in two of these houses by a mobile laboratory. In all nine houses, air-exchange rates were relatively low (0.2–0.5 ach) without mechanical ventilation, and yet indoor concentrations of Rn, HCHO, and NO₂ were below existing guidelines. Mechanical ventilation systems were effective in further reducing indoor contaminant concentrations. We conclude that when contaminant source strengths are low, acceptable indoor air quality can be compatible with low air-exchange rates.