未来决策的工具：货币与生物物理学指标相结合

考虑货币指标信息的利害，关系到一个国家的财富，它对于保护国家财富、维护国家经济命脉是不可或缺的。生物物理学指标的考虑，则关系到国内和全球天然资产的使用。经济命脉的维护有赖于基本的生态贡献，诸如可更新和不可更新资源、废物的消纳与稳定的气候条件等。这两项计量指标共同为决策者们提供了经济与生态生存能力的详尽资料。这样一种方法也可以用来解释国家与全球之间的可持续性关系，以及参与政策的制定。     

未来决策的工具:货币与生物物理学指标相结合

考虑货币指标信息的利害,关系到一个国家的财富,它对于保护国家财富、维护国家经济命脉是不可或缺的 .生物物理学指标的考虑,则关系到国内和全球天然资产的使用 .经济命脉的维护有赖于基本的生态贡献,诸如可更新和不可更新资源、废物的消纳与稳定的气候条件等 .这两项计量指标共同为决策者们提供了经济与生态生存能力的详尽资料 .这样一种方法也可以用来解释国家与全球之间的可持续性关系,以及参与政策的制定 .     

论高校国有资产严重流失的成因与对策

随着教育产业化程度的不断提高，高校投资力度迅速扩张，高校资产显著增加，但因体制不全，家底不清，监管乏力，致使国有资产管理混乱，闲置浪费严重，资产流失现象严重．加强高校国有资产管理，促进国有资产的保值、增值，提高资产的使用效益已迫在眉睫。     

生态资产资本化概念及意义解析

生态资产是经济社会发展的基础,但生态资产价值在经济社会发展过程中未能真正体现,进而造成生态破坏和环境污染现象屡禁不止。生态资产资本化是实现生态资产增殖的重要途径,也是未来生态保护的发展趋向。通过对资源、资产和资本,以及生态资源、生态资产和生态资本概念的辨析,提出生态资产资本化概念,并讨论了前期投资、生态资本运营、价值实现和生态建设4个资产资本化过程。通过对生态资产资本化意义的解析,认为生态资产资本化是协调自然保护与经济发展的有效手段,是规避资源诅咒现象的合理方法,是实现生态服务价值市场化的坚实基础。     

森林生态系统生态资产核算的模式与方法

全球变化背景下.植被对CO2的减排作用得到了广泛关注.森林生态系统具有诸多功能,不同功能的货币化基准难以统一,是进行总体生态资产价值定量核算的制约要素.在资源、环境与生态经济原理指导下,分析相关方法评估生态系统生态资产的可行性,选择量化评估参数,并通过多种模式与方法进行估算乌鲁木齐城市2004年森林生态系统的生态资产.森林生态系统涵养水源类、生物多样性维持类、净化空气类、保护土壤类以及大气调节类生态资产分别为0.224 8×108元、10.608 8x108元、0.630 8×108元、0.2592×108元及12.9653×108元,乌鲁木齐市森林生态总资产为24.6889×108元.各类生态资产具有一定的时空差异性.城市森林生态系统生态资产估算模式及方法的研究具有重要的理论价值与现实意义.     

西藏生态经济系统的能值分析与可持续发展的政策建议

运用生态经济学的能值理论与方法，以能值作为价值的度量单位，对西藏主要自然资源的状况、可开发利用潜力及其与外界的交流进行了系统的分析，对能值用量、环境负菏率、能值/货币比率、能值自给率、能值功率密度等种指标，与其他国家或地区进行了比较研究，最后就西藏资源的合理开发和可持续发展问题，提出了一些政策建议。     

非污染生态影响评价的生产力方法—以广东南亚热带地区为例

国家环境保护总局于1998年正式颁布实施非污染生态影响评价。非污染生态影响评价的方法很多，就以广东南亚热带地区为例研究非污染生态影响评价的生产力方法，并分析了这种方法的优点和存在的不足，以给区域建设项目的非污染生态影响评价提供借鉴。     

中国生态资产估价研究进展

随着对全球变化、生态破坏、环境污染等问题的出现,生态资产研究已成为政府、科研院所等的热点研究领域。本文将生态资产研究按行政区、流域与单一生态系统分3类进行分析,发现在流域尺度上的生态资产估算,以及生态资产的驱动机制研究较为薄弱;同时,文章对生态资产估算技术的适用范围、特点与缺点进行分析。在此基础上,探讨了目前我国生态资产研究存在的难点与不足,并对中国生态资产估算做了一些前展性的讨论。     

平顶山市区大气中TSP来源

用聚类分析——最小二乘拟合方法，采用迭代的、分裂的、不加权的、非交迭的成聚方法(IDDN)，从实测数据阵中求解实际存在的源特征谱及源贡献量，为平顶山市区大气污染总量控制，大气污染综合防治与管理，提供科学依据。     

生态保护红线区生态资产价值评估

划定生态保护红线并实行永久保护是为维护和保障国家生态安全、加强生态文明建设而对生态环境保护工作提出的新的更高要求。在国家、省、市等不同尺度生态保护红线划定工作有序开展的同时,与红线划定和管理相匹配的配套政策也在积极探索中。针对尚未完善的生态补偿机制定量研究现状以及生态红线区生态补偿标准的制定较为困难等难题,以山东省东营市为研究区域,构建生态资产及其价值评估指标体系,利用生态资产评估模型对不同类型生态保护红线区生态资产及其价值进行评估,获取生态资产现状及生态资产价值量,为生态保护红线区生态补偿等相关配套措施的开展提供参考。根据评估结果,2010年东营市生态保护红线区生态资产总价值为365.79×10~7元,占全市自然资源生态资产总价值的20.77%,生态保护红线划定对于维持东营市自然资源生态资产价值量具有重要意义,但生态保护红线区生态资产价值占比没有预期值高。建议在后期东营市生态保护红线的调整和完善工作中将生态资产价值量较大的地区纳入生态保护红线,以真正发挥生态保护红线的自然资源保护价值。     

The capital gains from trade are not enough: evidence from the environmental accounts of Venezuela and Mexico

In principle, a country cannot endure negative genuine savings for long periods of time without experiencing declining consumption. Nevertheless, theoreticians envisage two alternatives to explain how an exporter of non-renewable natural resources could experience permanent negative genuine savings and still ensure sustainability. The first one alleges that the capital gains arising from the expected improvement in the terms of trade would suffice to compensate for the negative savings of the resource exporter. The second alternative points at technological change as a way to avoid economic collapse. This paper uses the data of Venezuela and Mexico to empirically test the first of these two hypotheses. The results presented here prove that the terms of trade do not suffice to compensate the depletion of oil reserves in these two open economies.     

Estimating the Value of Non‐Use Benefits from Small Changes in the Provision of Ecosystem Services

Abstract: The unit of trade in ecosystem services is usually the use of a proportion of the parcels of land associated with a given service. Valuing small changes in the provision of an ecosystem service presents obstacles, particularly when the service provides non‐use benefits, as is the case with conservation of most plants and animals. Quantifying non‐use values requires stated‐preference valuations. Stated‐preference valuations can provide estimates of the public's willingness to pay for a broad conservation goal. Nevertheless, stated‐preference valuations can be expensive and do not produce consistent measures for varying levels of provision of a service. Additionally, the unit of trade, land use, is not always linearly related to the level of ecosystem services the land might provide. To overcome these obstacles, we developed a method to estimate the value of a marginal change in the provision of a non‐use ecosystem service—in this case conservation of plants or animals associated with a given land‐cover type. Our method serves as a tool for calculating transferable valuations of small changes in the provision of ecosystem services relative to the existing provision. Valuation is achieved through stated‐preference investigations, calculation of a unit value for a parcel of land, and the weighting of this parcel by its ability to provide the desired ecosystem service and its effect on the ability of the surrounding land parcels to provide the desired service. We used the water vole (Arvicola terrestris) as a case study to illustrate the method. The average present value of a meter of water vole habitat was estimated at UK£12, but the marginal value of a meter (based on our methods) could range between £0 and £40 or more.     

Invasion versus Isolation: Trade-Offs in Managing Native Salmonids with Barriers to Upstream Movement

Abstract: Conservation biologists often face the trade‐off that increasing connectivity in fragmented landscapes to reduce extinction risk of native species can foster invasion by non‐native species that enter via the corridors created, which can then increase extinction risk. This dilemma is acute for stream fishes, especially native salmonids, because their populations are frequently relegated to fragments of headwater habitat threatened by invasion from downstream by 3 cosmopolitan non‐native salmonids. Managers often block these upstream invasions with movement barriers, but isolation of native salmonids in small headwater streams can increase the threat of local extinction. We propose a conceptual framework to address this worldwide problem that focuses on 4 main questions. First, are populations of conservation value present (considering evolutionary legacies, ecological functions, and socioeconomic benefits as distinct values)? Second, are populations vulnerable to invasion and displacement by non‐native salmonids? Third, would these populations be threatened with local extinction if isolated with barriers? And, fourth, how should management be prioritized among multiple populations? We also developed a conceptual model of the joint trade‐off of invasion and isolation threats that considers the opportunities for managers to make strategic decisions. We illustrated use of this framework in an analysis of the invasion‐isolation trade‐off for native cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii) in 2 contrasting basins in western North America where invasion and isolation are either present and strong or farther away and apparently weak. These cases demonstrate that decisions to install or remove barriers to conserve native salmonids are often complex and depend on conservation values, environmental context (which influences the threat of invasion and isolation), and additional socioeconomic factors. Explicit analysis with tools such as those we propose can help managers make sound decisions in such complex circumstances.     

E‐commerce trade in invasive plants

Biological invasions are a major concern in conservation, especially because global transport of species is still increasing rapidly. Conservationists hope to anticipate and thus prevent future invasions by identifying and regulating potentially invasive species through species risk assessments and international trade regulations. Among many introduction pathways of non‐native species, horticulture is a particularly important driver of plant invasions. In recent decades, the horticultural industry expanded globally and changed structurally through the emergence of new distribution channels, including internet trade (e‐commerce). Using an automated search algorithm, we surveyed, on a daily basis, e‐commerce trade on 10 major online auction sites (including eBay) of approximately three‐fifths of the world's spermatophyte flora. Many recognized invasive plant species (>500 species) (i.e., species associated with ecological or socio‐economic problems) were traded daily worldwide on the internet. A markedly higher proportion of invasive than non‐invasive species were available online. Typically, for a particular plant family, 30–80% of recognized invasive species were detected on an auction site, but only a few percentages of all species in the plant family were detected on a site. Families that were more traded had a higher proportion of invasive species than families that were less traded. For woody species, there was a significant positive relationship between the number of regions where a species was sold and the number of regions where it was invasive. Our results indicate that biosecurity is not effectively regulating online plant trade. In the future, automated monitoring of e‐commerce may help prevent the spread of invasive species, provide information on emerging trade connectivity across national borders, and be used in horizon scanning exercises for early detection of new species and their geographic source areas in international trade.     

The use of environmental DNA in invasive species surveillance of the Great Lakes commercial bait trade

Over 180 non‐native species have been introduced in the Laurentian Great Lakes region, many posing threats to native species and ecosystem functioning. One potential pathway for introductions is the commercial bait trade; unknowing or unconcerned anglers commonly release unused bait into aquatic systems. Previous surveillance efforts of this pathway relied on visual inspection of bait stocks in retail shops, which can be time and cost prohibitive and requires a trained individual that can rapidly and accurately identify cryptic species. Environmental DNA (eDNA) surveillance, a molecular tool that has been used for surveillance in aquatic environments, can be used to efficiently detect species at low abundances. We collected and analyzed 576 eDNA samples from 525 retail bait shops throughout the Laurentian Great Lake states. We used eDNA techniques to screen samples for multiple aquatic invasive species (AIS) that could be transported in the bait trade, including bighead (Hypophthalmichthys nobilis) and silver carp (H. molitrix), round goby (Neogobius melanostomus), tubenose goby (Proterorhinus marmoratus), Eurasian rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus), and goldfish (Carassius auratus). Twenty‐seven samples were positive for at least one target species (4.7% of samples), and all target species were found at least once, except bighead carp. Despite current regulations, the bait trade remains a potential pathway for invasive species introductions in the Great Lakes region. Alterations to existing management strategies regarding the collection, transportation, and use of live bait are warranted, including new and updated regulations, to prevent future introductions of invasive species in the Great Lakes via the bait trade. El Uso del ADN Ambiental en la Vigilancia de Especies Invasoras del Mercado de Carnada Comercial de los Grandes Lagos     

Assessing the extent and nature of wildlife trade on the dark web

Use of the internet as a trade platform has resulted in a shift in the illegal wildlife trade. Increased scrutiny of illegal wildlife trade has led to concerns that online trade of wildlife will move onto the dark web. To provide a baseline of illegal wildlife trade on the dark web, we downloaded and archived 9852 items (individual posts) from the dark web, then searched these based on a list of 121 keywords associated with illegal online wildlife trade, including 30 keywords associated with illegally traded elephant ivory on the surface web. Results were compared with items known to be illegally traded on the dark web, specifically cannabis, cocaine, and heroin, to compare the extent of the trade. Of these 121 keywords, 4 resulted in hits, of which only one was potentially linked to illegal wildlife trade. This sole case was the sale and discussion of Echinopsis pachanoi (San Pedro cactus), which has hallucinogenic properties. This negligible level of activity related to the illegal trade of wildlife on the dark web relative to the open and increasing trade on the surface web may indicate a lack of successful enforcement against illegal wildlife trade on the surface web.     

Estimating the extent and structure of trade in horticultural orchids via social media

The wildlife trade is a lucrative industry involving thousands of animal and plant species. The increasing use of the internet for both legal and illegal wildlife trade is well documented, but there is evidence that trade may be emerging on new online technologies such as social media. Using the orchid trade as a case study, we conducted the first systematic survey of wildlife trade on an international social‐media website. We focused on themed forums (groups), where people with similar interests can interact by uploading images or text (posts) that are visible to other group members. We used social‐network analysis to examine the ties between 150 of these orchid‐themed groups to determine the structure of the network. We found 4 communities of closely linked groups based around shared language. Most trade occurred in a community that consisted of English‐speaking and Southeast Asian groups. In addition to the network analysis, we randomly sampled 30 groups from the whole network to assess the prevalence of trade in cultivated and wild plants. Of 55,805 posts recorded over 12 weeks, 8.9% contained plants for sale, and 22–46% of these posts pertained to wild‐collected orchids. Although total numbers of posts about trade were relatively small, the large proportion of posts advertising wild orchids for sale supports calls for better monitoring of social media for trade in wild‐collected plants.     

Inefficient environmental instruments and the gains from trade

The primary result from the trade and environment literature is that countries never lose from trade liberalization as long as they implement optimal pollution targets or if they hold emissions constant. These results are derived in models where the regulators use efficient instruments such as tradable permits or emission taxes. Regulators, however, continue to prefer command and control instruments. I show that regulation under these inefficient instruments (such as design standards or concentration standards) can lead to net losses under trade liberalization even if emissions are optimally adjusted for trade. Furthermore, holding the line on emissions need not guarantee welfare improvements either. The problem is that institutional distortions, the excess costs of inefficient instruments, can rise with trade and offset the material gains from trade. Hence the presumption that we can achieve gains from trade by considering only the level of emissions fails to recognize that the mode of regulation also matters.     

Dealing with the Clandestine Nature of Wildlife‐Trade Market Surveys

Abstract: Illegal international trade in wildlife (excluding fisheries and timber) has been valued at more than US$20 billion. A more precise figure has not been determined in part because of the clandestine nature of the trade, and for this same reason even regional and local levels of wildlife trade are difficult to assess. The application of recent developments in wildlife field‐survey methods (e.g., occupancy) now allows for a more‐accurate estimation of wildlife trade occurrence, including its hidden components at a variety of scales (e.g., regional, local) and periods (e.g., single season, 1 year, multiple years). Occupancy models have been applied in wildlife field studies to address the problem of false absences when conducting presence–absence surveys. Occupancy surveys differ from traditional presence–absence surveys because they incorporate repeat surveys, allowing for the likelihood of detecting a species (the probability of detection) to be estimated explicitly (in contrast to traditional surveys that often incorrectly treat this probability as close to one to allow for estimation of presence). Occupancy methods can be applied to a variety of wildlife‐trade surveys, including, for example, single‐species availability, links between two illegally traded species (i.e., co‐occurrence), and disease occurrence in live trade. In addition, free user‐friendly software (i.e., PRESENCE) allows even nonstatisticians to adequately address this issue. I simulated a hypothetical wildlife‐trade market survey that resulted in an apparent 20% decline in naïve occupancy (proportion of surveyed towns engaged in the trade) over 2 years, but when I accounted for change in probability of detection over the years the difference in occupancy was not statistically significant. As more sophisticated methods, such as occupancy, are applied to wildlife‐trade market surveys, results will be more robust and defensible and therefore, theoretically, more powerful when presented to conservation policy and decision makers.     

A guide to using the internet to monitor and quantify the wildlife trade

The unrivaled growth in e-commerce of animals and plants presents an unprecedented opportunity to monitor wildlife trade to inform conservation, biosecurity, and law enforcement. Using the internet to quantify the scale of the wildlife trade (volume and frequency) is a relatively recent and rapidly developing approach that lacks an accessible framework for locating relevant websites and collecting data. We produced an accessible guide for internet-based wildlife trade surveillance. We detailed a repeatable method involving a systematic internet search, with search engines, to locate relevant websites and content. For data collection, we highlight web-scraping technology as an efficient way to collect data in an automated fashion at regularly timed intervals. Our guide is applicable to the multitude of trade-based contexts because researchers can tailor search keywords for specific taxa or derived products and locations of interest. We provide information for working with the diversity of websites used in wildlife trade. For example, to locate relevant content on social media (e.g., posts or groups), each social media platform should be examined individually via the site's internal search engine. A key advantage of using the internet to study wildlife trade is the relative ease of access to an increasing amount of trade-related data. However, not all wildlife trade occurs online and it may occur on unobservable sections of the internet.