提取方法对土壤可溶性有机碳测定结果的影响

为验证浸提条件对土壤可溶性有机碳(DOC)浸提量的影响,选择具有代表性的3种土地利用方式的土壤进行实验,研究土样处理方式、提取时间、水土比、提取剂种类和振荡次数等提取条件对DOC浸提量的影响。结果表明:土样处理方式影响DOC浸提量的大小顺序为:风干过2 mm筛鲜样过1 mm筛过2 mm筛过5 mm筛不过筛,风干过2 mm筛的DOC提取量是鲜样不过筛的2.4倍,且各处理之间DOC浸提量差异性达显著水平(P0.05);DOC的浸提量随振荡时间变化不是特别明显,振荡4 h后基本达到平衡;土壤DOC浸提量随水土比的增加而增大,呈显著的线性关系;浸提剂种类对土壤DOC浸提量影响显著,4种提取剂提取出来的DOC量的大小顺序为:DOC(80℃,H_2O)DOC(25℃,0.5 mol·L~(-1) NaHCO_3)DOC(25℃,0.5 mol·L~(-1) K_2SO_4)DOC(25℃,H_2O);单次提取量随提取次数增加而降低,累积提取量随浸提次数增加而升高,且累积提取的DOC量与浸提次数呈极显著正相关。建议采用过2 mm筛的土壤鲜样,提取剂用25℃去离子水,水土比采用5∶1,连续振荡4 h后一次过滤测定土壤DOC含量。本研究有助于增强不同研究结果之间DOC数据的可比性,也有利于推动土壤DOC测定标准的完善。     

盐度梯度下闽江口短叶茳芏湿地土壤生态化学计量学特征

探讨了盐度梯度下闽江河口湿地土壤生态化学计量学特征及其指示意义。结果表明:沿盐度梯度(从高到低),河口湿地土壤(0~50 cm)总碳(TC)、总氮(TN)、总磷(TP)含量分别为16.52~23.13、1.56~1.76、0.61~0.81 g/kg,平均值分别为19.45、1.65、0.71 g/kg,空间变异性为CPN,垂直变异性为低盐区中盐区高盐区。盐度梯度下,土壤C/N比为10.31~13.17,平均值为11.88;C/P比为20.66~32.20,平均值为27.72;土壤N/P比为2.00~2.52,平均值为2.32;空间变异性为C/PC/NN/P。湿地土壤C/N、C/P和N/P比沿盐度梯度均表现为低盐区中盐区高盐区,即随盐度的增加而降低。垂向分布上,C/N比表现为随深度增加而增大,C/P和N/P比则大体表现为随深度增加先降低后变化趋缓。垂向空间变异性为低盐区中盐区高盐区。不同盐度湿地土壤C/N、C/P和N/P比与粘粒、电导率、pH、含水率呈负相关关系,与粉粒和容重呈正相关关系。粘粒、砂粒、电导率、pH是影响河口湿地土壤C/N、C/P和N/P比变化的关键因子。河口湿地土壤C/N/P比生态化学计量学特征对于土壤养分循环和平衡研究具有重要意义。     

吉林西部退化草原土壤盐渍化特征分析

对吉林西部退化草原六种常见植被类型下的土壤(0～20 cm)盐渍化特征进行了分析。采用国际上通用的土壤饱和浸提液电导率(ECe)、碱化度(ESP)和pH分别表征土壤的盐度、钠质化和酸碱程度。土壤盐度分为轻度、中度、重度和极度四个等级,对应的变化范围分别为:2～4、4～8、8～16、>16 dS m-1;土壤钠质化程度分为轻度、中度、重度和极度四个等级,对应的ESP范围分别为:5～10%、10～20%、20～40%、>40%;土壤酸碱性分为酸性、中性和碱性三种,对应pH范围分别为<6.5,6.5～8.5、>8.5。结果表明,植被类型对土壤盐度具有很好的指示作用,按土壤盐度由高到低排列,植被类型的顺序依次为:无植被(碱斑)、碱蓬(Suaeda glauca)、碱茅(Puccinellia tenuiflora)、虎尾草(Chloris virgata)、芦苇(Phragmites australis)、羊草(Leymus chinensis)。碱斑地、碱蓬地、碱茅地和虎尾草地的盐渍土类型均为盐化钠质土(ECe>2 dS m-1,ESP>5%),其中碱斑地和碱蓬地土壤盐化程度为极度(26.54≤ECe≤176.80 dS/m)、钠质化程度为极度(50.22≤ESP≤94.54%);碱茅和虎尾草植被下土壤盐度分别为10.70≤ECe≤27.62 dS m-1和6.86≤ECe≤13.88 dS m-1,钠质化程度分别为30.97≤ESP≤60.26%和16.21≤ESP≤58.11%;芦苇地的盐化程度为1.56≤ECe≤3.37 dS/m,钠质化程度为轻度(7.82≤ESP≤15.88%);羊草地的土壤盐度和钠质化程度分别2.43≤ECe≤6.66 dS m-1和1.43≤ESP≤8.34%。就土壤pH而言,羊草地为中性(7.44≤pH≤8.23),芦苇地为中性和/或碱性(8.18≤pH≤10.02),虎尾草地、碱茅地、碱蓬地和碱斑地均为碱性(8.83≤pH≤10.63)。     

Fenton试剂氧化法修复2,4-二氯酚污染土壤的研究

在泥浆体系中采用Fenton试剂氧化法修复2,4-二氯酚(2,4-DCP)污染的土壤.在恒温、避光条件下,研究2,4-DCP在泥浆体系中的解吸作用,并考察过氧化氢、硫酸亚铁、pH值、水土比、磷酸二氢钾、腐殖酸(HA)等因素对2,4-二氯酚去除效率的影响.试验结果显示,2,4-DCP在泥浆体系中有较高的解吸速率;2,4-DCP的解吸效率与水土比有关,水土比越大,解吸效率越高.研究表明:Fenton试剂氧化法能够有效地去除土壤中的2,4-DCP,过氧化氢和铁的最佳质量比为5:1,最佳pH值范围为2-3;水土比越大,2,4-DCP的去除效果越好;在pH=3时,磷酸二氢钾浓度、腐殖酸投加量和催化剂种类对2,4-DCP的去除效率影响很小.     

单宁酸对黄河三角洲盐碱土壤盐基离子有效性的影响

以黄河三角洲柽柳群落和盐碱光板地土壤为研究对象,利用单宁酸进行培养,通过测定土壤浸提液中盐基离子含量、计算离子比并进行相关统计分析,探讨单宁酸对盐碱土盐基离子有效性的影响.结果表明,随着单宁酸浓度升高,不同盐度土壤浸提液中的K~+、Ca~(2+)、HCO3-以及高盐土壤中的Cl-和低盐土壤中的SO_4~(2-)逐渐升高,而Na~+、Mg~(2+)、低盐土壤中的Cl-和高盐土壤中的SO_4~(2-)先升高后降低;不同盐度土壤中Na~+/K~+、Na~+/Ca~(2+)、Ca~(2+)/K~+、Mg~(2+)/K~+、Cl-/HCO_3~-、SO_4~(2-)/HCO_3~-和低盐土壤中的Cl-/SO_4~(2-)随着土壤中单宁酸浓度升高而降低,但Na~+/Mg~(2+)、Ca~(2+)/Mg~(2+)和高盐土壤中的Cl-/SO_4~(2-)则逐渐升高;方差分析的结果显示,单宁酸浓度除对高盐土壤中的Na~+影响不显著之外,对其他盐基离子及其比值的影响均达到显著水平;相关分析的结果表明,SO_4~(2-)在低盐土壤中与K~+、Na~+、Mg~(2+)和HCO_3~-之间的相关性与高盐土壤相反,而其他离子之间的相关性在不同盐度土壤中一致.综上,单宁酸能够降低土壤颗粒对盐基离子的吸附,促进土壤脱盐,因此可利用单宁酸或将其作为辅助材料改良盐碱土,但应适当控制单宁酸的用量,以促进更多Na~+的脱除及防止过多Ca~(2+)和K~+的流失.     

基于实时荧光定量PCR技术对不同盐碱程度土壤甲烷氧化菌比活性的研究

为了探究不同盐碱程度土壤甲烷氧化菌比活性与甲烷吸收速率的关系,通过室内CH4培养实验,采用实时荧光定量PCR技术,研究3种不同盐碱程度土壤,即:轻度盐化土壤(SA)、强度盐化土壤(SB)、盐土(SC)CH4吸收速率和甲烷氧化菌比活性。以含有甲烷氧化菌功能基因pmo A片段的重组质粒为标准品,测得标准曲线的相关系数r2为0.9977,扩增效率为86%,溶解曲线峰值均一。结果表明:轻度盐化土壤(SA)、强度盐化土壤(SB)、盐土(SC)CH4吸收速率分别为28.4、20.6、17.7 ng·kg-1·h-1,表现为轻度盐化土壤(SA)强度盐化土壤(SB)盐土(SC)。土壤CH4吸收速率与土壤甲烷氧化菌比活性显著正相关,Person相关系数r=0.788(P=0.012,n=9)。由Monte Carlo法检验后表明:p H、土壤浸提液电导率EC与土壤甲烷氧化菌比活性显著负相关,相关系数分别为-0.943(P=0.000 1,n=9)和-0.895(P=0.001,n=9),而容重ρb、总磷TP、总氮TN、有机碳OC与土壤甲烷氧化菌比活性无显著相关性(P0.05)。较高p H和EC的盐碱土壤,土壤甲烷氧化菌比活性低,CH4吸收速率低。     

不同地区稻田土壤甲烷氧化碳同位素分馏特征及其影响因素研究

稻田CH_4氧化是CH_4排放的自然调节,受多种因素的影响。中国水稻种植区分布广,不同地区的气候环境条件以及水肥管理措施,都会影响稻田CH_4氧化及碳同位素分馏过程。因此,对比研究不同地区稻田甲烷氧化和同位素分馏规律,甄别其影响因子,有助于进一步认识稻田甲烷氧化规律,也可为稻田温室气体减排调控提供科学依据。文章基于稳定性碳同位素的方法,结合室内好氧培养试验,测定了全国主要水稻产区(四川、湖南、江西、浙江、广东和辽宁)典型稻田土壤的CH_4氧化过程,确定了CH_4氧化碳同位素分馏系数α_(ox),研究了不同稻田土壤在不同水分条件下的CH_4氧化和同位素分馏的差异及规律。结果表明,四川资阳以及湖南宝洞峪的水稻土壤CH_4氧化潜力相对偏低,平均为其他地区土壤的六分之一。同时,不同地区稻田土壤CH_4氧化同位素分流系数(~(13)C)α_(ox)差异较大,且与CH_4氧化潜力呈显著负相关。在85%WHC(soil water holding capacity)和1∶1水土质量比时,相关系数分别为-0.85(P=0.032)和-0.82(P=0.047)。进一步研究发现,土壤CH_4氧化潜力与土壤活性铁含量呈显著正相关,在85%WHC和1∶1水土质量比时,相关系数分别为0.86(P=0.042)和0.90(P=0.035);而αox则与土壤活性铁含量呈显著负相关,85%WHC和1∶1水土质量比时,相关系数均为-0.92(P=0.026)。由以上结果可知,土壤水分和土壤活性铁是影响CH_4氧化潜力和碳同位素分馏的重要因素,而有关其作用机制仍需进一步的研究。     

有机酸与表面活性剂联合作用对土壤重金属的浸提效果研究

重金属污染土壤的原位淋洗修复既要实现对重金属的高效去除,还要尽量减少对土壤性质的破坏,这一点在农业污染土壤修复中尤为重要。以张士污灌区农田土壤为研究对象,利用振荡浸提技术筛选有机酸和表面活性剂组合,并确定了两者联合淋洗修复污染土壤的最佳配比。结果表明:有机酸(酒石酸、乙酸、柠檬酸和苹果酸)中的酒石酸浓度为0.5 mol.L-1和表面活性剂(SDBS、鼠李糖和皂素)中的皂素质量分数为0.7%时对土壤Cd、Pb、Zn的浸提效果较好;在酒石酸与皂素体积配比为1∶1时,对重金属Cd、Pb、Zn浸提效果最好,浸提率分别为87.62%、36.30%、20.67%;单一有机酸、表面活性剂或者有机酸与表面活性剂的混合溶液,对土壤重金属的浸提效果均为Cd>Pb>Zn。虽然有机酸与表面活性剂联合浸提效果略低于酒石酸浸提,但其弱酸性对土壤性质影响较小,在原位淋洗修复工程中有较好的应用前景。     

大气CO2浓度升高对稻田土壤中微量元素的影响

利用中国的稻/麦轮作FACE(Free Air Carbon-dioxide Enrichment)平台技术,应用DTPA浸提土壤的方法,研究大气CO2浓度升高对稻田土壤微量元素有效性的影响。位于扬州的中国稻麦轮作农田生态系统FACE试验平台于2004年6月开始运行,设有FACE圈(高CO2圈)与Ambient圈(对照圈,当前周围大气CO2浓度)2个处理,FACE区CO2浓度比Ambient区高200μmol·mol-1,每个处理含低氮与常氮2个氮肥水平。经过一个稻麦轮作后,分别于水稻生长的分蘖期、抽穗期、乳熟期和成熟期在每个副区多点采集0~5cm和5~15cm的土壤样品,再使用ICP测定土壤样品的DTPA浸提液的方法,得出土壤中有效态Fe、Mn、Cu和Zn的质量分数。结果表明,大气CO2浓度升高都不同程度的增加了0~5cm和5~15cm耕层土壤中DTPA提取态Fe、Mn、Cu、Zn的有效性,尤其对土壤有效Zn质量分数的增加达显著水平。不同N肥处理对土壤DTPA提取态Fe、Mn、Cu和Zn的质量分数无显著性的影响,CO2和N肥处理也未表现出显著性的交互作用。     

凋落物和氮添加对亚热带森林土壤浸提氮组分的影响

土壤不同氮组分对氮素循环和转化过程具有不同程度的调节作用。为了准确评价和理解氮添加和凋落物对土壤氮动态的影响,以亚热带罗浮栲(Castanopsis fabri)天然林和杉木(Cunninghamia lanceolata)人工林土壤为研究对象,在保留凋落物(留凋)和去除凋落物(去凋)情况下,模拟氮沉降试验,采用不同浸提剂(水、K_2SO_4、2.5 mol·L~(-1)和13 mol·L~(-1) H2SO4)逐步浸提土壤氮组分,研究氮添加[对照(CK,0 kg·hm~(-2)·a~(-1))、低氮(LN,75 kg·hm~(-2)·a-1)和高氮(HN,150 kg·hm~(-2)·a-1)]对亚热带红壤浸提组分氮含量的影响。结果表明:硫酸钾浸提的NH_4~+-N和可溶性有机氮(SON)高于水浸提的,而水浸提的NO_3~--N含量高于硫酸钾浸提的,酸水解性氮高于水溶性氮和盐溶性氮。林分显著影响不同组分氮含量,对水溶性氮含量的影响最显著,而阔叶天然林土壤氮组分对氮添加的响应更明显。留凋处理增加水溶性氮,且有利于惰性氮的分解,而去凋处理有利于惰性氮积累。氮添加对酸解性氮组分的影响不显著,氮添加显著降低2种林分土壤的惰性氮指数,降幅为64.7%～82.2%,去凋处理的降幅更大。土壤水溶性、交换性和弱酸浸提的SON与微生物生物量氮呈显著正相关,土壤水溶性和交换性SON可能是参与土壤氮矿化的重要组分。不同浸提组分氮之间呈显著正相关,说明组分之间存在相互影响。可见,从不同氮组分角度研究氮动态,更能反映其内在机理。     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Representation of the world's biophysical conditions by the global protected area network

Protected areas (PAs) are often implemented without consideration of already existing PAs, which is likely to cause an overrepresentation of certain biophysical conditions. We assessed the representativeness of the current PA network with regard to the world's biophysical conditions to highlight which conditions are underprotected and where these conditions are located. We overlaid terrestrial and marine PAs with information on biophysical conditions (e.g., temperature, precipitation, and elevation) and then quantified the percentage of area covered by the PA network. For 1 variable at a time in the terrestrial realm, high temperature, low precipitation, and medium and very high elevation were underrepresented. For the marine realm, low and medium sea surface temperature (SST), medium and high sea surface salinity (SSS), and the deep sea were underrepresented. Overall, protection was evenly distributed for elevation across the terrestrial realm and SST across the marine realm. For 2 variables at a time, cold and very dry terrestrial environments had mostly low protection, which was also the case for low SST and low and medium SSS across most depths for marine environments. Low protection occurred mostly in the Sahara and the Arabian Peninsula for the terrestrial realm and along the Tropic of Capricorn and toward the poles for the marine realm. Although biodiversity measures are of prime importance for the design of PA networks, highlighting biophysical gaps in current PAs adds a frequently overlooked perspective. These gaps may weaken the potential of PAs to conserve biodiversity. Thus, our results may provide useful insights for researchers, practitioners, and policy makers to establish a more comprehensive global PA network.     

Quantitative composition of the defensive secretion ofBledius species (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Oxytelinae) is adapted to naturally occurring predators

Summary The adaptation of defensive secretions to their target organisms was examined for the abdominal gland secretions ofBledius furcatus, B. spectabilis andB. arenarius. Therefore the target organisms of the secretion of theseBledius species (i.e. their predators) had to be identified. At the collection sites examined these were the earwigLabidura riparia, the antCataglyphis bicolor, the flyLispe candicans, different carabids of the generaPogonus, Dichirotrichus, Dyschirius, Bembidion andCalathus and the wading birdsHaematopus ostralegus andCalidris alba. The secretion of the abdominal glands contains the toxin ptoluquinone dissolved in either-dodecalactone and 1-undecene (B. furcatus andB. spectabilis) or in octanoic acid and octyloctanoate (B. arenarius). The ratio of these solvents is species-specific. Application experiments using some of the natural insect predators (L. riparia, C. bicolor, Pogonus, Di. gustavii, Dyschirius) revealed that these solvent ratios provided a more effective deterrent than other possible ratios. Thus by combining the solvents in certain ratios, the capability of cuticular penetration and therefore the effectiveness of the defensive secretions are adapted to their natural targets.     

Democracy versus development: New urban debates

The politics of development includes subtexts of choice, as underpinned by community consensus (or lack of it), against the larger backdrop of a liberal democracy, with its intricate power structures that influence the choice of concepts and often lead to complicity rather than consent. A dilemma exists between the understanding of field-level practitioners and that of academics, whose understandings of progress differ. Progress can (and often does) imply long-term change across generations whereas development is often more a matter of crisis management and delivering tangible results to end-users. This makes it a bone of contention across political systems, irrespective of local or global dynamics. Development can emerge as a tool to be wielded for power and further political mileage at the expense of progress. Progress cannot be studied as a counterpoint to development as the sense of history is often missing in development interventions. Development tends to be piecemeal as its very logic often stems from the rationale of power. This is not to suggest, however, that development is only about politics; it is definitely more than the politics of everyday life and involves all of civil society that requires its critical and immediate attention. In this sense, it has become a priority for politicians with an underlying agenda designed to out-manouevre dissent and all statements of protest.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

A framework to measure the wildness of managed large vertebrate populations

As landscapes continue to fall under human influence through habitat loss and fragmentation, fencing is increasingly being used to mitigate anthropogenic threats and enhance the commercial value of wildlife. Subsequent intensification of management potentially erodes wildness by disembodying populations from landscape-level processes, thereby disconnecting species from natural selection. Tools are needed to measure the degree to which populations of large vertebrate species in formally protected and privately owned wildlife areas are self-sustaining and free to adapt. We devised a framework to measure such wildness based on 6 attributes relating to the evolutionary and ecological dynamics of vertebrates (space, disease and parasite resistance, exposure to predation, exposure to limitations and fluctuations of food and water supply, and reproduction). For each attribute, we set empirical, species-specific thresholds between 5 wildness states based on quantifiable management interventions. We analysed data from 205 private wildlife properties with management objectives spanning ecotourism to consumptive utilization to test the framework on 6 herbivore species representing a range of conservation statuses and commercial values. Wildness scores among species differed significantly, and the proportion of populations identified as wild ranged from 12% to 84%, which indicates the tool detected site-scale differences both among populations of different species and populations of the same species under different management regimes. By quantifying wildness, this framework provides practitioners with standardized measurement units that link biodiversity with the sustainable use of wildlife. Applications include informing species management plans at local scales; standardizing the inclusion of managed populations in red-list assessments; and providing a platform for certification and regulation of wildlife-based economies. Applying this framework may help embed wildness as a normative value in policy and mitigate the shifting baseline of what it means to truly conserve a species.     

Cost‐effective conservation of an endangered frog under uncertainty

How should managers choose among conservation options when resources are scarce and there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of actions? Well‐developed tools exist for prioritizing areas for one‐time and binary actions (e.g., protect vs. not protect), but methods for prioritizing incremental or ongoing actions (such as habitat creation and maintenance) remain uncommon. We devised an approach that combines metapopulation viability and cost‐effectiveness analyses to select among alternative conservation actions while accounting for uncertainty. In our study, cost‐effectiveness is the ratio between the benefit of an action and its economic cost, where benefit is the change in metapopulation viability. We applied the approach to the case of the endangered growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis), which is threatened by urban development. We extended a Bayesian model to predict metapopulation viability under 9 urbanization and management scenarios and incorporated the full probability distribution of possible outcomes for each scenario into the cost‐effectiveness analysis. This allowed us to discern between cost‐effective alternatives that were robust to uncertainty and those with a relatively high risk of failure. We found a relatively high risk of extinction following urbanization if the only action was reservation of core habitat; habitat creation actions performed better than enhancement actions; and cost‐effectiveness ranking changed depending on the consideration of uncertainty. Our results suggest that creation and maintenance of wetlands dedicated to L. raniformis is the only cost‐effective action likely to result in a sufficiently low risk of extinction. To our knowledge we are the first study to use Bayesian metapopulation viability analysis to explicitly incorporate parametric and demographic uncertainty into a cost‐effective evaluation of conservation actions. The approach offers guidance to decision makers aiming to achieve cost‐effective conservation under uncertainty.     

Threats to intact tropical peatlands and opportunities for their conservation

Large, intact areas of tropical peatland are highly threatened at a global scale by the expansion of commercial agriculture and other forms of economic development. Conserving peatlands on a landscape scale, with their hydrology intact, is of international conservation importance to preserve their distinctive biodiversity and ecosystem services and maintain their resilience to future environmental change. We explored threats to and opportunities for conserving remaining intact tropical peatlands; thus, we excluded peatlands of Indonesia and Malaysia, where extensive deforestation, drainage, and conversion to plantations means conservation in this region can protect only small fragments of the original ecosystem. We focused on a case study, the Pastaza‐Marañón Foreland Basin (PMFB) in Peru, which is among the largest known intact tropical peatland landscapes in the world and is representative of peatland vulnerability. Maintenance of the hydrological conditions critical for carbon storage and ecosystem function of peatlands is, in the PMFB, primarily threatened by expansion of commercial agriculture linked to new transport infrastructure that is facilitating access to remote areas. There remain opportunities in the PMFB and elsewhere to develop alternative, more sustainable land‐use practices. Although some of the peatlands in the PMFB fall within existing legally protected areas, this protection does not include the most carbon‐dense (domed pole forest) areas. New carbon‐based conservation instruments (e.g., REDD+, Green Climate Fund), developing markets for sustainable peatland products, transferring land title to local communities, and expanding protected areas offer pathways to increased protection for intact tropical peatlands in Amazonia and elsewhere, such as those in New Guinea and Central Africa which remain, for the moment, broadly beyond the frontier of commercial development.