Potentialities,problems, policies and progress in modelling sustainable development: A dynamic,hierarchical approach

This paper discusses some of the potentials, problems, policies and progress in modelling sustainable development. After briefly describing ten approaches to modelling sustainable development, some of the methodological problems still to be resolved are addressed. It is then suggested that policies to promote sustainable development should operate at six different spatial levels connecting global, multinational, national, regional, local and individual. Attempting to model sustainable development in such a hierarchical manner is exceedingly difficult. One way of modelling sustainable development is to develop the concept of a sustainable corridor, combining ecological, economic and equity considerations in a hierarchical fashion and through space-time. A preliminary dynamic, hierarchical model is described connecting global and national patterns of development. Using global and national data for Scotland, the calibrated model, running under the business-as-usual scenario, shows that current development paths are unsustainable. It is shown that, by implementing a judicious choice of policies, a sustainable corridor for a global and a national system can be achieved. The ways in which this preliminary model can be developed to connect all six hierarchical levels are discussed.     

Sustainable consumption American style: Nutrition education,active living and financial literacy

The 1992 Earth Summit highlighted the critical role of consumption in affluent nations as a source of global environmental deterioration. While most developed countries have begun over the past decade to grapple with the difficult challenges of reducing household demand for energy and materials, sustainable consumption has yet to attract substantive attention in the United States. There exist, however, several strategic openings that American proponents of more environmentally benign household provisioning could exploit to launch a public dialogue about the environmental implications of contemporary consumption. First, public health professionals have in recent years begun to make significant strides publicizing the nutritional inadequacy of the American diet and the contributory role it plays in elevating incidences of chronic disease. Second, the rapid increase in the rate of obesity in the country is now coming to be understood as a health problem that is attributable to the prevalence of sedentary lifestyles. Finally, there is growing public concern in the United States over the accumulation of unprecedented levels of consumer debt and the epidemic of personal bankruptcies. The intent of this paper is to highlight the need to consider the personal dimensions of everyday life when formulating strategies to foster more sustainable consumption.     

Participatory assessment of soil degradation in the uplands of southwestern Tanzania: Implications for sustainable agriculture and rural livelihoods

Rural household food insecurity and poverty are closely linked to soil degradation in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, causes, degradation processes, coping strategies and need for interventions may vary from one place to another. This study was conducted in Mbinga District, SW Tanzania, to investigate causes and biophysical processes of soil degradation; effects on livelihoods, coping strategies and entry points for interventions. Implications for sustainable production and rural livelihoods are discussed. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), household surveys using a short open-ended questionnaire and biophysical exploration were the research tools used. Soil fertility depletion resulting from continuous cropping and erosion losses is the main form of soil degradation. Maize yield was 57% lower in fertility-depleted farms than in productive farms. Soil pH, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺ and CEC accounted for 79% of variations in maize yield. Organic soil fertility amelioration was a common strategy used by smallholders. Use of beneficial tree and shrub fallows is the most environmentally, economically and socially promising improvement that can be used to build on the existing strengths of farmers' knowledge and strategies. Subsidy for the right type of fertilizers, infrastructure improvement and education of farmers on proper use of fertilizers should significantly contribute to improved and sustainable production and livelihoods.     

Comparing indoor wastewater-fed aquaculture with two conventional wastewater treatment plants using adopted sustainable process indices

Highly aggregating 'Sustainable Process Indices' (SPI) were calculated for an indoor wastewater-fed aquaculture and two conventional wastewater treatment plants to make a direct comparison between the three facilities possible. The goal was to find out which technology would be better suited for use in a sustainable economy. The SPI provides a type of 'ecological footprint' for the three facilities on the basis that, in a sustainable economy, solar energy would be our main energy source and that surface area would become the limiting factor for economic development, because the transformation of solar energy into other forms of energy, products or services requires area. SPI calculations consider the area necessary for the sustainable dissipation of byproducts and wastes of a process into the environment. The SPI thus uses area as its basic unit for comparisons between different technologies, products or services.

Energy consumption, as well as treatment performance (both the quality and quantity of treated effluent), and multi-functionality of facilities were key variables in determining how much area a wastwater treatment plant would need to be embedded sustainably into the environment. The calculated SPIs reveal that the wastewater-fed aquaculture requires the least area to be embedded sustainably into the environment, therefore, it would be better suited for use in a sustainable economy compared to the two conventional wastewater treatment plants.     

Towards sustainability: Objectives,strategies and barriers for cleaner production in China

The paper explores the objectives, strategies and barriers to cleaner production (CP) implementation in China. Successful demonstration projects in China have shown that CP is a strategy for reducing pollution and costs, increasing competitiveness and achieving an integrated balance between economic and environmental benefits. As such, it is an inevitable choice and important contribution to sustainable development. However, it has not progressed enough as a strategy for continuous improvement since its effects are limited to industrial sectors or regions. CP implementation can be assisted by further popularization, policy system improvement, perception and awareness raising and technology innovation. These dimensions are the key tasks and incentives for all levels of government, enterprises and social organizations in moving toward sustainability.     

Socio-environmental co-evolution: some ideas for an analytical approach

A number of scholars, mainly in ecological economics, have been attracted to the concept of co-evolution for the analysis of socio-environmental change. Yet none has adopted and developed an applied analytical approach using an explicitly evolutionary framework. This paper discusses how other scholars in economics, technological studies, organization and political science have been using evolutionary explanations and draws some lessons for ecological economics. Evolutionary is a mode of explanation based on the selective retention of renewable variation. It accounts for phenomena of structural fit and change in a variety of domains. A co-evolutionary explanation, by extension, entails two or more evolving systems whose interaction affects their evolution. Socio-environmental co-evolution involves human systems (material practices and non-material ideas and values) and non-human systems (living and physical). The challenge then is how to develop case-specific, empirical applications that define and elaborate the variants that co-evolve and specify the processes of mutual selection. Applications could benefit from existing classifications and causal propositions in the natural and social sciences. Co-evolution is part of a larger analytical toolkit for looking at complex socio-environmental problems. Although distinct, there are strong synergies, complementarities and potential for combined uses between co-evolutionary, co-dynamic and complexity-based explanations.     

Applying DPSIR to sustainable development

The DPSIR framework was devised in the late 1990s as a tool for the reporting and analysis of environmental problems, ranging in scale from global systems to localized watersheds. Since then, international organizations have begun to apply this framework to the evaluation of sustainable development initiatives, to better understand and overcome barriers to sustainability. While this may seem a logical application for an integrated environmental assessment tool, the use of DPSIR in sustainable development will likely perpetuate the least satisfactory outcomes of development. DPSIR cannot address the impact of aggregated, informal responses on the drivers and pressures related to environmental problems and sustainability challenges. This problem is not merely an oversight of the framework, but an issue that emerges within the structure of DPSIR itself through the unexamined, unacknowledged hierarchy of actors that this framework implicitly creates with its typology. Therefore, a DPSIR-centered approach is not a new direction for development within international organizations, but instead, a reproduction of existing inequalities between actors and stakeholders within current approaches.     

Beijing environmental sustainable development from 1983 to 2003

Ever since the Earth Summit was launched at Rio de Janeiro, research has been done on the problems of developing indices for the health of the environment and for its sustainable development. However, this research has concentrated more on national and regional levels than on local levels, more on spatial comparisons than on time series analysis, more on short-term than on long-time analysis, more on qualitative than on quantitative analysis. In contrast, therefore, this paper presents an indicator system procedure for measuring Beijing (the capital of China) environmental sustainability based on the Pressure-State-Response (PSR) philosophy, evaluates the trend of Beijing environmental sustainability index (BESI) quantitatively for 21 years, from 1983 to 2003, and suggests three great opportunities in the near future that are expected to provide some dependable information to policy makers. The results suggest that Beijing is still far from environmental sustainable development. The total trend was better in the 1980s than in the 1990s, and has improved slightly since 2000.     

Yar tsa Gumba (Cordyceps sinensis): A call for its sustainable exploitation

Yar tsa Gumba, the local name for Cordyceps sinensis, is an entomophilus fungus in the order Hypocreales and family Scolecosporaceae, found primarily in alpine and subalpine regions, from 3200 to 4000 m asl. The fungus is parasitic on caterpillars, primarily those in the genus Hepialus. Studies on Cordyceps sinensis indicate that the fungus may improve liver function, reduce cholesterol, adjust protein metabolism, inhibit lung carcinoma and treat aging disorders. In the last five years, since it was found in parts of Garhwal and Kumaun Himalaya, massive exploitation has occurred, leading to a drastic decrease in wild populations. This paper presents results of an exploration carried out on the fungus at several important sites, the mode of trafficking and suggested policy initiative for its sustainable exploitation.     

Sustainable development and systems thinking: A case study of a heritage city

The concept of sustainable cities is based on a development paradigm that recognizes that cities make an important contribution to social and economic development. System thinking, including hard and soft systems, can be used to provide a new perspective and tools to resolve questions. The 500-year-old heritage city of Udaipur in India, which has traditionally maintained the spirit of living in a sustainable manner, is now seeking sustainable development. This paper attempts to analyse the issues underlying sustainable development of Udaipur by applying CATWOE in order to comprehend the systemic elements of the city from a soft systems perspective.     

Taking CO2 emissions into a country's productivity change: The Asian growth experience

A country's macroeconomic policies have two basic objectives: to provide its citizens with a means to make a better living and a preferable environment. For the past decades, accompanying its fantastic economic growth, fast-developing Asia has become one of the major contributors to the increase of global carbon dioxide emissions. This paper analyzes productivity growth of ten Asian countries, namely, China, Japan, the NIEs and the ASEAN-4, by examining their outputs from economic performance and environmental impact standpoints. Productivity growth and its components are calculated using the Malmquist index. There appears to be a widening gap between the productivity growth trends without/with CO₂ emissions of the ten Asian economies. This implies that the factor of productivity could be over-emphasized at great cost to the environment. A cross-country comparison analysis, considering CO₂ emissions, shows that the productivity of China and ASEAN-4 deteriorated while the productivity growth of Japan and NIEs performed much better.     

Contrasting visions of food and farming sustainability: NGOs versus the UK Labour government

In a previous issue of the International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology I described how competing visions of sustainable agriculture are currently battling for hegemonic status (Johnson 2006). One vision seeks to break the hegemony of productionism and the other seeks to continue down its path with a greater emphasis on biotechnology. In this paper, I wish to explore these visions further as they apply to actual existing strategies for sustainable farming and food in the UK. This paper uses discourse analysis to compare the UK government's vision for sustainable farming and food sectors with that of two NGOs: Friends of the Earth and Corporate Watch. The language and discourse in the government's and NGOs' strategy documents is examined for evidence indicating their ideological conception of agricultural sustainability. The paper concludes that, whilst the NGOs are pursuing a strong vision of sustainability, seeking to break productionism's hegemony, the UK government is pursuing an ideologically weak-tomoderate conceptualisation of sustainability, pursuing the high-technology modified version of agricultural productionism.     

Environmental change and vulnerability in the Usangu plain,southwestern Tanzania: Implications for sustainable development

Natural resources are important assets for sustainability of rural livelihoods and economic development. The objectives of the study were to assess linkage of environmental change to emerging water scarcity, livelihoods insecurity and decline in wildlife biodiversity and hydropower generation in the Great Ruaha ecosystem, and to discuss policy lessons for sustainable development. Literature survey, participatory assessments, collection of records from stakeholders, participatory observations and a questionnaire survey were used. Participatory assessment found that increasing water scarcity is associated with degradation of land, vegetation cover and change in rainfall intensity and duration. Rainfall change is supported by 83% of respondents and rainfall trends analysis. About 42% of variation in cereal production is described by the rainfall amount variability. Analysis of trends for per capita cereals production from district records showed a significant (p < 0.05) decline over the years. Changes in water flows in the Great Ruaha River have been evident since 1993, and have affected wildlife diversity in the Ruaha National Park and power generation from the Kidatu hydroelectric plant downstream. Human livelihood activities, exclusiveness, weak coordination and collaboration between sectors and institutions in policy formulation and implementation have played a role. The pro-poor policy formulation through integrated planning, strong coordination and collaboration is recommended for sustainable development.     

Malaysian households' drinking water practices: A case study

Malaysia has abundant water resources and adequate rainfall and yet the nation has water shortages and water quality problem. Various measures have been taken by the government to address water issues but, in spite of these, quantity and quality of drinking water is still one of the main concerns of Malaysian consumers today. An exploratory study was undertaken to determine the level of awareness of respondents on water issues, assess their perception on drinking water quality, and identify measures undertaken by households to improve drinking water quality and to determine sustainable water practices. A cross-sectional research design, utilizing a survey was conducted among urban residents of Seremban town. Data showed that each household had a mean of five members, with an average household income of RM3788.00 (US$1000). The respondents were Chinese (70%), Indian (23%) and Malay (7%). The majority of respondents rated the quality of water supplied to their house as poor (70%), while 16% rated it very poor. The respondents indicated that colour, odour and taste were the main problems with their tap water. Due to the poor tap water quality perceived by respondents, most took additional measures to improve its quality. Most (85%) purchased domestic water filters, 41% boiled water and 17% bought bottled water. The reasons for purchasing water were: concern for health, perception of poor tap water quality, and increasing water contamination and pollution in the country. Almost a quarter of respondents that had water filters mentioned the convenience because they did not have to boil water. Sustainable use of water by respondents was moderate, with a mean of 2.9 on a scale of 1 (never) to 4 (all the time). Some aspects of conservation, such as the promptness of repairing leaking pipes, planning activities to conserve water, and method of car washing could be improved. Advantages and limitations of different water technologies are discussed. Sustainable water practices are also proposed.     

Evaluating land-use suitability of an industrial city in northeast China

Distribution of industrial land use has a crucial influence on the regional environment. Nanfen is a developing industrial city affiliated with Benxi City, northeastern China. The suitability of industrial land use in Nanfen was evaluated to provide a scientific basis for industrial land-use planning and to minimise negative impacts on the local environment. Multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) within GIS was employed to derive a suitability map. The suitability map was compared with current industrial land use to identify areas for relocation of current industries. A total of 25.7% of the urban area in Nanfen was rated as suitable, 28.1% as somewhat suitable, 37.9% as unsuitable and 8.2% as most unsuitable. About 20.6% of the current industrial land was in suitable areas, 46.5% in somewhat suitable areas and 32.9% in unsuitable areas. We further verified the influence of selected factors on the suitability of industrial land use using a field survey. The results confirmed that industrial land-use relocation in Nanfen is required. This study uses ecological suitability evaluation as a basis for land-use planning and has implications for other industrial cities in northeast China that have similar environmental and ecological problems.     

Ecological engineering for water in sustainable settlements construction

The components of a water system in a settlement should benefit the residents, environment and nature. Ecological engineering for water use in settlements is crucial for designing and constructing a sustainable community. This article discusses ecological engineering measures and technology case studies in China for systematic regulation of the multiple functions of water in a sustainable community. These methods include reusing all sources of water (rainwater, wastewater and surface water), separating water that has been used for different purposes, promoting nutrient cycling, and improving the self-purification of water by controlling pollutant loads.     

Urban planning and sustainable development under transitional economy: a case study of Guangzhou

There are always conflicts between the need for conservation and economic growth in the developing countries. Planning plays a primary role in balancing these conflicts. This is particularly obvious in Chinese cities since China adopted its open door policy in 1978. Foreign investment has been a major driving force for rapid growth of the Chinese economy. Planners in China have been facing the dilemma of protecting the natural environment on the one hand while, on the other hand, supporting the overall national goal of attracting foreign investment to maintain continuous economic growth. The planning system in China, which has been largely based on a planned economy, soon found itself handicapped in safeguarding the environment from rapid industrialization and urbanization fostered by market forces. This paper takes Guangzhou as an example to study challenges to the planning system in Chinese cities in the past two decades of rapid economic growth and urbanization. By means of a case study on an industrial development within a protected orchard area in Guangzhou, this study illustrates the conflict between the need for rural conservation and the pressure for economic development in the Chinese cities. In particular, it analyzes the pressures on the present urban planning system in China in terms of the following categories: the emergence of private investors in urban development; the goal of pursuing a high economic growth rate; the implications of a transitional economy for urban planning; and the weakness of the present urban planning system. It concludes that the role of urban planning in China should change from simply providing guidelines on board land-use strategy, to a combination of a strategic plan with specific development control laws at the operational level. Finally, some recommendations are suggested as to how to improve the planning system in China.     

Achieving sustainable rural development in Southern China: the contribution of bamboo forestry

Bamboo forests, due to their special characteristics and ecological functions, play an important role in sustainable forest management and rural development in China. Over the past two decades, China has successfully established millions of hectares of bamboo forest, which has restored fragile ecosystems, provided benefits to local communities, alleviated rural poverty and eased timber shortages. However, there is potential for further improvements to the bamboo forest estate. This paper analyses the current state of bamboo forest resources and management, and the roles of the bamboo forest industry in social development, economic growth and ecosystem protection in China. We examine the main issues related to governance systems, local economic development and traditional management practices. Finally, we suggest some directions for future development.     

Sustainable shrimp fishery management recommendations for a coastal lagoon in Baja California Sur,Mexico

The Baja California Peninsula is considered México's most productive in terms of commercial fisheries. Very few quantitative assessments of the economic importance of this region exist, especially considering artisanal fisheries and their relationships with ecological data. Datasets from government records on shrimp capture in Magdalena Bay, an arid coastal lagoon of Baja California Sur were collected, analysed and correlated with ecological data. Over the 10-year period analysed, fisheries from Magdalena Bay made up 27.5% of the shrimp capture of the state, contributing over US$15.5 million to the economy of the country. The impressive value of this resource warrants considerable attention in the design of land-use plans for the future of the region. Analysis of ecological and economical data on shrimp fishery activities in the Magdalena Bay region enables us to propose recommendations to enhance the sustainable development of the local inhabitants. A thorough assessment of the potential value of alternative economic activities should be conducted to determine their potential to provide similar productive use of the natural resources of the region as the shrimp fishery. Also, from a more specific management viewpoint, harvest rates of small shrimp in the channels should be reduced.