中国的碳排放交易,可行度几何?

<正>为什么要碳排放交易?2014年11月12日上午,世界上最大的两个经济体领导人于APEC峰会期间站在一起,宣布了关于气候变化的联合声明。在这份获得全球掌声的联合声明中,中美两国都第一次设定了各自的后2020时代应对气候变化的目标。习近平主席和奥巴马总统都分别宣布了各自雄心勃勃的目标:中国承诺在2030年前后其二氧化碳排放达到峰值,届时非化石能源在一次能源消费中的占比也将提高至20%左右;美国承诺于2025年实现在2005年基     

兰州市排污权交易制度研究

作为市场手段和环境治理结合所产生排污权交易制度,被越来越多的国家和地区证明其对缓解环境问题有着独特的、重要的作用。随着我国市场经济的深入发展、市场条件的日趋成熟,排污权交易也在国内许多省市进行深入试点,并产生了一定的效益。本文从排污权交易理论出发,结合兰州的污染现状,论证兰州市实行排污权交易的必要性和可行性。最后,在借鉴国内外排污权交易成功经验的基础上,对兰州市排污权交易制度的构建提出建议。     

内蒙古自治区实施排污权交易的探索

探索和建立排污权交易制度,实现稀缺环境资源的有偿使用,提高环境资源的配置效率,对于内蒙古自治区建立长效减排机制、改善环境质量有着非常现实的意义。本文在借鉴国内外排污权和碳交易理论和经验的基础上,分析内蒙古自治区排污权交易制度设计和实践特点,提出进一步完善和活跃内蒙古自治区排污权交易市场的对策建议。     

An overview of emissions trading and its prospects in Hong Kong

With the approval of the Chinese central government, the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) decided to participate in a regional emissions trading (ET) pilot scheme in the Pearl River Delta (PRD) region. This scheme, instead of aiming to curb global warming, is geared mostly toward reducing air pollutant (that is, SO₂, NO_x, RSP, and VOCs) emissions by 20–55% by 2010, thus improving air quality in the region. Both the HKSAR and the Guangdong Provincial Governments will impose emission caps on their respective power plants in the region and allocate emissions credits to them. This study explores the background of this regional ET scheme and correlates it with the emissions reduction scenario to provide more details for assessing its applicability to Hong Kong and Guangdong Province. Although practicing ET in the PRD region presents many challenges, establishing an appropriate ET scheme is of paramount importance for Hong Kong, as well as other cities in the PRD region, to achieve a sustainable air quality.     

Land-based carbon storage and the European union emissions trading scheme: the science underlying the policy

Climate change is occurring with greater speed and intensity that previously anticipated. All effective environmentally and socially sound mitigation efforts need to be employed to effectively address this global crisis. Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) projects can provide significant climate change mitigation benefits as well as poverty alleviation and biodiversity conservation benefits. The policies of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU-ETS), the world’s largest carbon market exclude LULUCF. Scientific support for this exclusion was presented in a briefing paper published by the Climate Action Network—Europe (CAN) that puts forward the proposition that land based storage of carbon is ineffective. A careful review of the scientific papers cited in support of CAN’s position indicates that, while the papers themselves are scientifically sound, they do not support the continued exclusion of LULUCF projects from the EU-ETS. At the same time some important recent research papers that describe the carbon storage and social benefit potential of such projects are not included in the analysis. An in-depth consideration of the scientific evidence is necessary in evaluating this policy option. Based on this evidence a case can be made for the inclusion of LULUCF projects in the EU-ETS.     

Ensuring the environmental effectiveness of linked emissions trading schemes over time

Linking emissions trading schemes allows the combined emissions cap to be achieved at lower cost. Linking is usually environmentally neutral, but some design features can lead to higher aggregate emissions if schemes are linked. Technical solutions to limit the potential emissions increases due to design differences implemented when schemes are linked are not sufficient to ensure the environmental effectiveness of the linked schemes over time. Technological, economic, administrative and other changes that can lead to higher aggregate emissions are inevitable. The administrators of the linked schemes must ensure the stringency of the emissions cap relative to the “business as usual” emissions of affected sources, the accuracy of the emissions reported by affected sources, the integrity of the allowance registry, effective compliance enforcement, and the environmental integrity of the credits issued for emission reduction projects over time. This will require a process for agreeing on revisions to the regulations of the linked schemes, a mechanism to provide assurance of the environmental effectiveness of each of the linked schemes, and a procedure for terminating the linking agreement.

The globalization of the carbon market: Welfare and competitiveness effects of linking emissions trading schemes

In the light of the prevailing goal to keep global temperature increase below 2° and recent challenges to reach a global climate agreement in the near term, linking emissions trading schemes has emerged as a prominent complementing policy option. To this end, we explicitly assess (1) the macroeconomic welfare impacts and (2) the trade-based competitiveness effects of linking the European Union (EU) Emissions Trading Scheme in the year 2020. A stylized partial market analysis suggests that, independently of regional cost characteristics, the integration of emissions trading schemes (ETS) yields economic welfare gains for all participating regions. A computable general equilibrium analysis confirms these findings at the macroeconomic level: The economic efficiency losses from emissions regulation are diminished for both EU Member States and non-EU regions by linking ETS. However, the quantitative analysis suggests opposite trade-based incentives for linking up: while EU Member States improve their terms of trade by integrating with emerging ETS, non-EU linking candidates face competitiveness losses by linking. We conclude that, for non-EU regions, the attractiveness of linking ETS is a matter of priorities for economic welfare or international competitiveness. If these priorities are hierarchized in favor of welfare, the globalization of the carbon market could become a promising policy option complementing the efforts to reach a global climate agreement in 2015.     

Linking the EU emissions trading scheme: economic implications of allowance allocation and global carbon constraints

We investigate the role of domestic allowance allocation and global emissions constraints for the carbon-market impacts of linking the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) internationally. Employing a quantitative simulation model of the global carbon market, we find that the economic benefits from connecting the European ETS to emerging non-EU schemes strongly depend on the regional allowance allocation of the linking participants: In a world of moderate carbon constraints, an economically efficient regional allowance allocation induces a much stronger fall in total compliance costs than a sub-optimal (i.e. too high) domestic allocation of emissions permits. However, a more efficient (i.e. stricter) allocation shifts abatement efforts and compliance costs to energy-intensive industries which are covered by the domestic ETS. We further find that committing to ambitious global emissions reduction targets (compatible with stabilizing CO₂ concentrations at 450 ppm) induces much stronger regional abatement efforts and substantially higher compliance costs for the abating regions. In such an ambitious climate policy regime, an efficient domestic allocation of allowances is even more important from an economic perspective: Here, linking emissions trading schemes diminishes the associated compliance costs on the largest scale.

不同情境下中国碳排放权交易市场的风险度量

以深圳、湖北、广东、上海及北京5个碳交易中心2015～2020年的日交易数据为基础,设置了Ave、Med、Max、Min4种交易情境,采用TGARCH-VaR模型对不同情境下的碳排放权交易市场风险进行了研究.结果表明,不同情境下碳排放交易市场风险存在差异,各情境的市场稳定性、政策响应度均存在一定规律:Ave情境碳现货收...     

Oil price scenarios and climate policy: welfare effects of including transportation in the EU emissions trading system

The stringency of policies needed to meet a climate target is influenced by uncertain oil prices because price changes cause emission changes, making the robustness of climate policy instruments important. As a result of its dependence on oil, emissions from the transport sector are particularly sensitive to oil price changes. We use a computable general equilibrium model to study the effects of including the transport sector in the EU??s emissions trading scheme under three future oil price scenarios. Our results show that there are potentially significant welfare gains from including transportation in the emissions trading scheme because the system as a whole helps absorb required changes in climate policy to meet the overall EU cap on emissions. There is, however, a cost in terms of somewhat greater permit price uncertainty.     

Restricted autumn grazing to reduce nitrous oxide emissions from dairy pastures in Southland,New Zealand

Animal excreta deposited on pasture during grazing represent the single largest source of N₂O emissions in New Zealand. These emissions are highest when pastures are grazed during the wet autumn/winter season. The strategic use of a feed pad on dairy farms could restrict the amount of excreta N returned to pasture during this time of year, and thus reduce N₂O emissions and other environmental losses. The effect of restricting autumn grazing to 3 h per day on N₂O emissions and NO₃ leaching losses was measured in a 3-year field study. Nitrous oxide emissions were measured weekly between April and September using a soil cover methodology. Nitrate leaching losses were measured from the NO₃ concentration of drainage water that was collected from the hydrologically isolated and artificially drained field plots. Restricted autumn grazing reduced both N₂O emissions and NO₃ leaching losses from grazed pasture by about 40%. The effect of this grazing regime on total on-farm N₂O emissions was estimated using the field measurements and the New Zealand IPCC inventory methodology. These calculations indicated that restricted autumn grazing could reduce direct and indirect on-farm N₂O emissions by 7–11%, and could thus be an effective tool for reducing N₂O emissions, while also reducing NO₃ leaching losses, and preventing soil and sward damage. The study further highlighted that the currently used IPCC inventory methodology cannot easily account for reductions in national N₂O emission following adoption of N₂O mitigation strategies. It also reinforced the need for assessing the impact of mitigation strategies at a whole farm level.     

The water footprint of hydroelectricity: a methodological comparison from a case study in New Zealand

Hydroelectricity has been rated to have a large water footprint (WF) on global average. We assessed the WF of hydroelectricity by three different methods using New Zealand as a case study. The first (WF-1) and second (WF-2) methods only consider the consumptive water use of the hydroelectricity generation system, while our third method (WF-3) accounts for the net water balance. Irrespective of the method, the WF of New Zealand’s hydroelectricity was found much smaller than the commonly cited international value of 22 m³ GJ⁻¹. Depending on the method, the national WF ranged from 1.55 m³ GJ⁻¹ (WF-3) to 6.05 m³ GJ⁻¹ (WF-1). The WF- 3 considers the net water balance including rainfall, which is the key driver for replenishing water resources. It provides meaningful information that helps our understanding of the differences of the WF in locations, which are diverse in terms of water resource availability. We highlight the effects of local climatic differences and the structural specifics of a hydroelectricity scheme on the WF. The large variation in the WF of hydropower across New Zealand illustrates the inappropriateness of using global average values. Local values, calculated using our hydrologically rational method, must be used.     

Multi-round auctions in an emissions trading system considering firm bidding strategies and government regulations

Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change - The allocation of carbon emission rights via auctioning has gradually become an irreplaceable part of the emissions trading system. However,...     

Linking the emissions trading schemes of Europe and China - Combining climate and energy policy instruments

Both Europe and China have announced targets for greenhouse gas emissions reduction and renewable energy development. To achieve their emissions targets, Europe has introduced emissions trading scheme (ETS) since 2005 and China has planned to establish a national ETS in 2015. We assess the impact of a joint Europe-China ETS when both climate and energy policy instruments are simulated in a multiregional general equilibrium model. Our results show that a joint ETS markedly increases total carbon emissions from fossil fuels even though global mitigation costs are reduced. Moreover, a joint ETS helps China achieve its renewable energy target, but for Europe, it works opposite. While the renewable energy target does not help Europe achieve additional abatement, the renewable energy target in China reduces mitigation costs and emissions, and increases renewable energy consumption and sales of carbon allowances. Financial transfer through a joint ETS remains marginal compared to China’s demand for renewable energy subsidies. We conclude that as long as an absolute emissions cap is missing in China, a joint ETS is not attractive for mitigation and China’s renewable energy target can reduce emissions.     

合芜蚌试验区排污权交易制度建立之构想

排污权交易的实践证明了排污权交易可以有效地保护环境,同时也提出了亟需对其适用条件和建设模式进行探索的现实命题。文章以合芜蚌自主创新试验区为例,在分析了合芜蚌试验区内推行排污权交易制度的可行性基础上,提出了区域性排污权交易的构建模式。     

The interaction between emissions trading and renewable electricity support schemes. An overview of the literature

The public promotion of electricity from renewable energy sources coexists in many countries with the recent implementation of emissions trading schemes. As shown by several papers, this coexistence may lead to significant interactions between both instruments, in the form of synergies and conflicts. This paper provides an overview and analysis of the literature on such coexistence and interactions. A major conclusion is that policy measures aiming at exploiting the synergies between both instruments should be implemented. The greatest synergy effects from the use of both instruments take place through appropriate coordination of their targets. Another key finding is that, although some stylised facts can be inferred from the studies, some results from those complex interactions are context-specific since they depend on the design of the instruments in particular countries. In spite of the significant policy implications of such interactions for the effective and cost-effective functioning of both instruments, this is a surprisingly under searched field. It is so concerning, both, theoretical and empirical analysis.

Cleaner production in New Zealand: taking stock

New Zealand has seen a significant change in attitude and behaviour toward sustainable business practices since the late 1980s when the introduction of cleaner production marked the beginning of a change in the way the relationship between business and the environment was perceived. The context of this change is important. New Zealand is unique in terms of its relative geographic isolation and as a consequence human settlers encountered a unique ecosystem, dominated by avian species and without mammalian predators. Subsequent anthropogenic activity has seriously impacted New Zealand's biodiversity and sustainability is seen by many as a way of restoring, or at least conserving the remnant of that unique ecosystem. The country's natural environment and resources, the shape of business and the health of the economy all colour the way and rate at which sustainability is adopted. This paper charts that change and provides a perspective on relevant policy, research and intervention initiatives over the last 15 years or so and discusses the challenges that face New Zealand in a global market.     

家具行业挥发性有机物治理成本及排污权交易价格估算

佛山市顺德区工业VOCs污染问题突出,以中小企业为主的家具行业排放是第二大来源(17%),因此,顺德区率先在广东省开展了家具行业VOCs排污权交易试点工作.本文以区内木质家具行业为例,研究了排污权交易定价方法,得到VOCs平均污染治理成本(5363.26元·t~(-1)·a~(-1))并将其作为排污权交易的初始价格,之后运用多级模糊综合评价法计算的地区调整系数(γ=1.47)进行修正,得到最终参考交易价格(7883.99元·t~(-1)·a~(-1)).该价格与2016年交易底价(8000元·t~(-1)·a~(-1))偏差较小(1.45%).本文还开发了内置核心算法的挥发性有机物排污权交易辅助定价工具,综合利用数据库中企业基本信息、挥发性有机物排放数据等,为排污权交易定价提供辅助决策服务.     

Sustainability in the New Zealand wine industry: drivers,stakeholders and practices

This research aims to investigate various sustainability issues in the New Zealand wine industry. Namely, the study examines (1) what drives the industry to engage in sustainability practices, (2) the role of stakeholders in the company's decision-making, and (3) environmental practices related to water utilization, chemicals and waste management. A qualitative research approach supplemented by quantitative measures was adopted to answer the research questions. Twenty-four wineries were studied. The research found that the most important drivers for sustainable practices are personal values, preferences and satisfaction with the profession (i.e., enjoyment of the work itself), followed by product quality and customers' demand. Size of firm also appears to be an important factor. New Zealand wine companies are also driven by the market, but companies do not receive a price premium for grapes grown sustainably or organically grown. The study proposes a typology matrix that differentiates wineries' involvement in sustainability based on the extent of sustainability practices and sustainability drivers.