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1.
The Precautionary Principle has emerged in response to the need for an effective method for dealing with risks and uncertainties in environmental management. In essence, the Principle requires action to prevent serious and irreversible damage even before harm can be scientifically demonstrated or economically assessed. Proponents argue that the Principle should be applied in situations where both the probability and value of irreversible damage are unknown. The lack of these particular data prevent a full cost–benefit analysis, but permit application of the Principle through the defensive-expenditure approach. How much would the community be required to pay to fund alternatives to maintain the environment and so defend existing levels of utility? Through the application of risk analysis and the stochastic dominance technique, a range of options and outcomes can be examined incorporating the using available information within a framework consistent with economic rationality. An extended risk simulation is applied to an environmental issue where there is a risk of serious and irreversible damage to the environment, namely, protection of the Barmah-Millewa forest-wetland in Australia. 相似文献
2.
外来物种入侵及其环境法律调控准则 总被引:12,自引:0,他引:12
随着世界经济、贸易和交通高度发达的影响,外来物种入侵活动且益加剧,已尼成为威胁我国生物多样性与生态环境的重要因素之一,对我国的一些地区造成了巨大的生态和经济损失。有关外来入侵物种管理的立法应贯彻风险预防原则。 相似文献
3.
Opponents of biotechnology ofteninvoke the Precautionary Principle to advancetheir cause, whereas biotech enthusiasts preferto appeal to ``sound science.' Publicauthorities are still groping for a usefuldefinition. A crucial issue in this debate isthe distribution of the burden of proof amongthe parties favoring and opposing certaintechnological developments. Indeed, the debateon the significance and scope of thePrecautionary Principle can be fruitfullyre-framed as a debate on the proper division ofburdens of proof. In this article, we attemptto arrive at a more refined way of thinkingabout this problem in order to escape from theexisting polarization of views between ``guiltyuntil proven innocent' and ``innocent untilproven guilty.' This way of thinking alsoenables a critical review of currentdemarcations between risk assessment and riskmanagement, or science and politics, and of themorally laden controversy on the relativeimportance of type-I and type-II errors instatistical testing. 相似文献
4.
The Precautionary Principle: Scientific Uncertainty and Omitted Research in the Context of GMO Use and Release 总被引:3,自引:0,他引:3
Commercialization of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have sparked profound controversies concerning adequate approaches to risk regulation. Scientific uncertainty and ambiguity, omitted research areas, and lack of basic knowledge crucial to risk assessmentshave become apparent. The objective of this article is to discuss the policy and practical implementation of the Precautionary Principle. A major conclusion is that the void in scientific understanding concerning risks posed by secondary effects and the complexity ofcause-effect relations warrant further research. Initiatives to approach the acceptance or rejection of a number of risk-associated hypotheses is badly needed. Further, since scientific advice plays a key role in GMOregulations, scientists have a responsibility to address and communicate uncertainty to policy makers and the public. Hence, the acceptance of uncertainty is not only a scientific issue, but is related to public policy and involves an ethical dimension. 相似文献
5.
Anne Ingeborg Myhr Terje Traavik 《Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics》2003,16(3):227-247
Risk governance of GM plants and GMfood products is presently subject to heatedscientific and public controversies. Scientistsand representatives of the biotechnologyindustry have dominated debates concerningsafety issues. The public is suspicious withregard to the motives of scientists, companies,and political institutions involved. Thedilemmas posed are nested, embracing valuequestions, scientific uncertainty, andcontextual issues. The obvious lack of data andinsufficient information concerning ecologicaleffects call for application of thePrecautionary Principle (PP). There are,however, divergent opinions among scientistsabout the relevance of putative hazards,definition of potential ``adverse effects,' andwhether actions should be taken to preventharm. The reliance on the concept ofsubstantial equivalence in safety evaluation ofGM food is equally controversial. Consequently,value assumptions embedded in a scientificframework may be a barrier for employment ofthe PP. One of our major conclusions is thatprecautionary GMP usage requires riskassessment criteria yet undeveloped, as well asbroader and more long-term conceptions of risk,uncertainty, and ignorance. Conflicts ofinterest and public participation are otherissues that need to be taken intoconsideration. GMP governance regimes that arejustifiable from a precautionary and ethicalpoint of view must transcend traditionalscientific boundaries to include alternativescientific perspectives as well as publicinvolvement. 相似文献
6.
The Commission's recentinterpretation of the Precautionary Principleis used as starting point for an analysis ofthe moral foundation of this principle. ThePrecautionary Principle is shown to have theethical status of an amendment to a liberalprinciple to the effect that a state only mayrestrict a person's actions in order to preventunacceptable harm to others. The amendmentallows for restrictions being justified even incases where there is no conclusive scientificevidence for the risk of harmful effects.However, the liberal tradition has seriousproblems in determining when a risk of harm isunacceptable. Nevertheless, reasonable liberalarguments in favor of precaution can be basedon considerations of irreversible harm andgeneral fear of harm. But it is unclear whenthere considerations can be overridden.Within the liberal framework, the Commissionadvocates a so-called proportional version ofthe Precautionary Principle. This should beclearly distinguished from a welfare-basedapproach to precaution based on risk-aversiveweighing up of expected costs and benefits.However, in the last resort, the Commissiondoes seem to make a covert appeal to suchconsiderations. 相似文献
7.
The Euler Number as an Index of Spatial Integrity of Landscapes: Evaluation and Proposed Improvement
The spatial integrity of a habitat or landscape is determined by the occurrence of habitat fragments and of perforations inside
them. A landscape is said to have less spatial integrity with increasing numbers of fragments and perforations. The Euler
number (ε) is a numerical measure of spatial integrity, based upon the difference |n
f
−n
p
| between the number of fragments (n
f
) and the number of perforations (n
p
). In this contribution, ε is evaluated, and an improvement is presented as a new index ε*, which is a combination of two
metrics (ε
i
, ε
d
) based on n
f
and n
p
. The term ε
i
quantifies the intensity of perforation and/or fragmentation. The term ε
d
measures the extent to which fragmentation predominates perforation, and vice versa. The intensity and dominance measures
are combined into an Euclidean distance measure, generating the new ensemble value ε*, calculated as ε*= (n
f
+n
p
)−1√[1 +n
f
2]. Use, sensitivity, and application of ε*, ε
i
, and ε
d
are illustrated using percolation maps. Application of the new metrics by environmental scientists is encouraged because
(1) no negative values can be generated with ε*, ε
i
, and ε
d
; (2) the range of ε*, ε
i
, and ε
d
is fixed; (3) process dominance and intensity are both assessed; (4) ε*, ε
i
, and ε
d
are easy to calculate and to interpret; and (5) ε* is not only based upon |n
f
−n
p
|, as ε is. Guidelines for practical use by means of a biplot of ε
i
and ε
d
are given. 相似文献
8.
Susan Carr 《Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics》2002,15(1):31-38
In February 2000, the EuropeanCommission adopted a Communication on theprecautionary principle. This states how theCommission intends to apply the principle andestablishes guidelines for its application. Thedocument is intended to inform discussions oninternational agreements. In particular, itprovides a defense of European Union (EU)precautionary policies in case of tradedisputes, for example, in case the EU isaccused of imposing unfair trade barriers onexports of genetically-modified (GM) productsfrom the United States under the rules of theWorld Trade Organisation. In the communication,the Commission emphasizes the scientificaspects of the precautionary principle, perhapspartly to counter claims from US officials thatthe EU's reluctance to accept GM imports is notbased on science but is politically-motivated.However, a principle is by definition a moralguide to behavior. In other words, it is anethic. The precautionary principle should beviewed as a complement to science, to beinvoked when a lack of scientific evidencemeans that outcomes are uncertain. Anyinterpretation of this principle needs to placeat least as much emphasis on its ethical andvalue-based aspects as on its scientificjustification. The Commission's interpretationrisks undermining the painstaking progress madeamong European Union member states inresponding to public concern about GM crops andfood by adopting increased precaution. Thispaper explores the balance between thescientific and ethical/value-based aspects ofthe precautionary principle as set out in theCommission's communication, to make the casethat it is the ethical and value-based aspectsrather than the scientific aspects of theguidelines that need strengthening. 相似文献
9.
A. Van Dommelen 《Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics》2002,15(1):123-139
An effective application of thePrecautionary Principle (PP) hinges on thestipulation that, ``a lack of scientificcertainty shall not be used as a reason forpostponing measures.' The practicalconsequences of this expression are presentlynot clear enough in most contexts of use toenable constructive communication and thereforethe PP is not sufficiently operational now. Apragmatic and fundamental methodology forunderstanding scientific (un)certainty indifferent practical contexts needs to be put inplace to create a communicative basis foreffective precaution. Lack of clarity aboutproblem definition and problem ownershipcreates artificial controversies that willobstruct a precautionary approach. Given thefact that different practical contexts ofscientific (un)certainty exist, it may seemfrom one context as if no precaution iswarranted whereas concerns from anotherrelevant context may suggest otherwise.Therefore, an integrative methodologicalframework for communicating about scientific(un)certainty is sorely needed in internationalpolicy-making. By putting a focus on therelevance of specified research questions forthe objective of taking precaution, acommunicative methodology may be adopted thatis dedicated to the design properties of asustainable future. Precaution cannot beoperationalized without a methodological basisthat allows for effective transparency andevades the stalemates of artificialcontroversy. Existing debate methodologies haveso far not managed to accommodate thesepressing demands. 相似文献
10.
Corburn J 《Environmental management》2002,29(4):451-466
While risk assessment continues to drive most environmental management decision-making, its methods and assumptions have been
criticized for, among other things, perpetuating environmental injustice. The justice challenges to risk assessment claim
that the process ignores the unique and multiple hazards facing low-income and people of color communities and simultaneously
excludes the local, non-expert knowledge which could help capture these unique hazards from the assessment discourse. This
paper highlights some of these challenges to conventional risk assessment and suggests that traditional models of risk characterization
will continue to ignore the environmental justice challenges until cumulative hazards and local knowledge are meaningfully
brought into the assessment process. We ask whether a shift from risk to exposure assessment might enable environmental managers
to respond to the environmental justice critiques. We review the US EPA's first community-based Cumulative Exposure Project,
piloted in Brooklyn, NY, and highlight to what extent this process addressed the risk assessment critiques raised by environmental
justice advocates. We suggest that a shift from risk to exposure assessment can provide an opportunity for local knowledge
to both improve the technical assessment and its democratic nature and may ultimately allow environmental managers to better
address environmental justice concerns in decision-making. 相似文献
11.
Bryan BA 《Environmental management》2006,37(1):126-140
The desire to capture natural regions in the landscape has been a goal of geographic and environmental classification and ecological land classification (ELC)
for decades. Since the increased adoption of data-centric, multivariate, computational methods, the search for natural regions
has become the search for the best classification that optimally trades off classification complexity for class homogeneity.
In this study, three techniques are investigated for their ability to find the best classification of the physical environments
of the Mt. Lofty Ranges in South Australia: AutoClass-C (a Bayesian classifier), a Kohonen Self-Organising Map neural network,
and a k-means classifier with homogeneity analysis. AutoClass-C is specifically designed to find the classification that optimally
trades off classification complexity for class homogeneity. However, AutoClass analysis was not found to be assumption-free
because it was very sensitive to the user-specified level of relative error of input data. The AutoClass results suggest that
there may be no way of finding the best classification without making critical assumptions as to the level of class heterogeneity
acceptable in the classification when using continuous environmental data. Therefore, rather than relying on adjusting abstract
parameters to arrive at a classification of suitable complexity, it is better to quantify and visualize the data structure
and the relationship between classification complexity and class homogeneity. Individually and when integrated, the Self-Organizing
Map and k-means classification with homogeneity analysis techniques also used in this study facilitate this and provide information
upon which the decision of the scale of classification can be made. It is argued that instead of searching for the elusive
classification of natural regions in the landscape, it is much better to understand and visualize the environmental structure
of the landscape and to use this knowledge to select the best ELC at the required scale of analysis. 相似文献
12.
The proximity principle—disposing of waste close to its origin—has been a central value in municipal solid waste (MSW) management
in Japan for the last 30 years and its widespread adoption has helped resolve numerous “Not in My Backyard” issues related
to MSW management. However, MSW management costs have soared, in large part because of aggressive recycling efforts and because
most MSW is incinerated in a country that has scarce landfill capacity. In addition, smaller, less sophisticated incinerators
have been closed because of high dioxin emissions. Rising costs combined with the closure of smaller incinerators have shifted
MSW management policy toward regionalization, which is the sharing of waste management facilities across municipalities. Despite
the increased use of regionalized MSW facilities, the proximity principle remains the central value in Japanese MSW management.
Municipal solid waste management has become increasingly regionalized in the United States, too, but different driving forces
are at work in these two countries. The transition to regionalized MSW management in Japan results from strong governmental
control at all levels, with the central government providing funds and policy direction and prefectures and municipalities
being the primary implementing authorities. By contrast, market forces are a much stronger force with US MSW management, where
local governments—with state government oversight—have primary responsibility for MSW management. We describe recent changes
in Japan’s MSW programs. We examine the connections between MSW facility regionalization, on the one hand, and, on the other
hand, the proximity principle, coordination among local governments, central government control, and financing mechanisms. 相似文献
13.
14.
Volunteer Environmental Monitoring and the Role of the Universities: The Case of Citizens' Environment Watch 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Universities can provide a stable home for launching collaborative community research projects. Citizens' Environment Watch
(CEW), an environmental monitoring initiative based at the University of Toronto, has made significant contributions to environmental
education and stewardship in Ontario, Canada. Following dramatic cuts in provincial monitoring programs, citizens and youth
have used chemical parameters and biological indicators to gauge water and air quality, and to identify areas requiring remediation
and pollution prevention efforts. The relationship of Citizens' Environment Watch to government agencies, funders and other
grassroots environmental groups has evolved over the past 5 years as CEW attempts to remain effective without taking on the
investigative and enforcement roles to support the regulatory enforcement that has been largely abandoned by government. We
explore the challenges inherent in developing and maintaining a volunteer organization that carries out rigorous and useful
scientific work and we outline the ability of a university to help overcome these critical challenges. Finally, we present
lessons learned for the benefit of other citizen and youth monitoring projects. 相似文献
15.
/ The search for sustainable development provides the impetus forexamining the role of indigenous institutions and their ecological knowledgein environmental assessment and local sustainability. This paper attempts totrace the evolution of environmental assessment in Ghana. Focusing on theAshanti Region, the paper further discusses the nature and operations ofindigenous institutions, their ecological knowledge, beliefs, practices, andsocial norms that are relevant to environmental assessment process in thecountry. Some of the challenges that emerge from the discussions arehighlighted. There is a need to establish environmental assessment andcooperative management boards that would include representatives ofindigenous institutions. In addition, the introduction of technicaldictionaries and training manuals based on indigenous ecological knowledgeand their humane environmental practices will further improve theenvironmental assessment process in Ghana.KEY WORDS: Environmental assessment; Indigenous institutions; Indigenousecological knowledge; Sustainable development; Environmental assessmentboards 相似文献
16.
Hercock M 《Environmental management》2002,30(3):313-326
The apparently unresolvable differences between managing national defense and local conservation, public recreation, and scientific
research can be overcome through an advisory committee, with a strong and dedicated entity to drive the processes of governance
and change. The case of the Garden Island Environmental Advisory Committee shows how the organizational and political difficulties
of integrating state interests and federal concerns were met. Garden Island, off the coast of Perth, the capital of the State
of Western Australia, is a base for the Royal Australian Navy which is administered by the federal Department of Defence.
Examples are given of the committee's approach to integrated environmental management and the implementation of the Navy's
environmental policy. 相似文献
17.
微生物传感器技术原理及其在水环境监测中的应用 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
微生物传感器技术产生于70年代,并且,已在水环境监测中得到应用,例如,BOD、NH3、NH4^+、NO2^-、NO3^-等项目分析;毒物测定和毒性评价;致突变物的筛选等。实践证明,该项技术具有快速、灵敏、易于自动控制、成本低廉等优点;可以相信,它必定会越来越多的应用于环境监测。 相似文献
18.
The terms used to describe and negotiate environmental quality are both ambiguous and value-laden. Stakeholders intimately
and actively involved in the management of forested lands were interviewed and found to use ambiguous, tautological, and value-laden
definitions of terms such as health, biodiversity, sustainability, and naturalness. This confusing language hinders public
participation efforts and produces calls to regulate and remove discretion from environmental professionals. Our data come
from in-depth interviews with environmental management professionals and other stakeholders heavily vested in negotiating
the fate of forested lands. We contend that environmental science and management will be more effective if its practitioners
embrace and make explicit these ambiguous and evaluative qualities rather than ignore and disguise them. 相似文献
19.
20.
A Multiattribute Index for Assessing Environmental Impacts of Regional Development Projects: A Case Study of Korea 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Evaluating environmental impacts has become an increasingly vital part of environmental management. In the present study,
a methodological procedure based on multiattribute utility theory (MAUT) has been applied to obtain a decision-maker's value
index on assessment of the environmental impacts. The paper begins with an overview of MAUT. Next, we elicited strategic objectives
and several important attributes, and then structured them into a hierarchy, with the aim of structuring and quantifying the
basic values for the assessment. An environmental multiattribute index is constructed as a multiattribute utility function,
based on value judgements provided by a decision-maker at the Korean Ministry of Environment (MOE). The implications of the
results are useful for many aspects of MOE's environmental policies; identifying the strategic objectives and basic values;
facilitating communication about the organization's priorities; and recognizing decision opportunities that face decision-makers
of Korea. 相似文献