Non-Fickian dispersion in a single fracture

Solute transport in fractured rocks is of major interest in many applications, from the petroleum industry to ground water management. This work focuses on the dispersion process in a transparent replica of a real single fracture. The fracture exhibits strong changes in heterogeneity, with the first half very heterogeneous and the second half fairly homogeneous. Three models have been used to interpret the tracer experiments: the classical advection-dispersion equation (ADE), the continuous time random walk (CTRW), and the stratified model. The main goals were to test these models and to study possible correlations between fitting parameters and heterogeneities. As expected, the solution derived from the ADE equation appears to be unable to model long-time tailing behavior. On the other hand, the results confirm the CTRW robustness and the coefficient beta seems well correlated to heterogeneities. Finally, the stratified model is also able to describe non-Fickian dispersion. The parameters defined by this model are correlated to the heterogeneities of the fracture.     

Fast method for simulation of radionuclide chain migration in dual porosity fracture rocks

In fractured rocks with a porous rock matrix such as granites, radionuclides will flow with the water in the fracture network. The nuclides will diffuse in and out the rock matrix where they can sorb and be considerably retarded compared to the water velocity. A water parcel entering the network will mix and split at the fracture intersections and parts of the original parcel will traverse a multitude of different fractures. The flowrates, velocities, sizes and apertures of the fractures can vary widely. Normally one must solve the transport equations for every fracture and use the effluent concentration as inlet condition to the next fracture and so on. It is shown that under some weakly simplified conditions it suffices to determine one single parameter group containing information on the flow wetted surface that a water parcel contacts along the entire path. It is also shown how this can be obtained. Then, solving the transport equations only once for time and location along the path gives the concentration and nuclide flux of every nuclide in the chain everywhere along a path. The same solution actually is valid for every path in the network. This dramatically reduces the computation effort. The same approach can be used for models based on streamtubes.     

Matrix diffusion coefficients in volcanic rocks at the Nevada test site: influence of matrix porosity, matrix permeability, and fracture coating minerals

Diffusion cell experiments were conducted to measure nonsorbing solute matrix diffusion coefficients in forty-seven different volcanic rock matrix samples from eight different locations (with multiple depth intervals represented at several locations) at the Nevada Test Site. The solutes used in the experiments included bromide, iodide, pentafluorobenzoate (PFBA), and tritiated water ((3)HHO). The porosity and saturated permeability of most of the diffusion cell samples were measured to evaluate the correlation of these two variables with tracer matrix diffusion coefficients divided by the free-water diffusion coefficient (D(m)/D*). To investigate the influence of fracture coating minerals on matrix diffusion, ten of the diffusion cells represented paired samples from the same depth interval in which one sample contained a fracture surface with mineral coatings and the other sample consisted of only pure matrix. The log of (D(m)/D*) was found to be positively correlated with both the matrix porosity and the log of matrix permeability. A multiple linear regression analysis indicated that both parameters contributed significantly to the regression at the 95% confidence level. However, the log of the matrix diffusion coefficient was more highly-correlated with the log of matrix permeability than with matrix porosity, which suggests that matrix diffusion coefficients, like matrix permeabilities, have a greater dependence on the interconnectedness of matrix porosity than on the matrix porosity itself. The regression equation for the volcanic rocks was found to provide satisfactory predictions of log(D(m)/D*) for other types of rocks with similar ranges of matrix porosity and permeability as the volcanic rocks, but it did a poorer job predicting log(D(m)/D*) for rocks with lower porosities and/or permeabilities. The presence of mineral coatings on fracture walls did not appear to have a significant effect on matrix diffusion in the ten paired diffusion cell experiments.     

Influence of the mode of matrix porosity determination on matrix diffusion calculations

The theoretical basis for matrix diffusion in fractured rocks and the methodology for the determination of diffusion coefficients in the laboratory are well established. One significant problem, however, remains in that it is difficult to quantify the degree of sample disturbance affecting the geometrical, geophysical and hydraulic properties of the rock matrix. A new technique, with in situ rock impregnation with resin, for examining the diffusion-accessible rock matrix has been developed and successfully adopted to the rock matrix behind a water-conducting fracture in host crystalline rocks at Nagra's Grimsel Test Site in Switzerland and JNC's Kamaishi In Situ Test Site in Japan. In line with the results of a large number of natural analogue and laboratory studies, the existence of an in situ interconnected pore network was substantiated. Matrix porosities determined on the laboratory samples from both the sites are 1.5-3 times higher than in situ values, irrespective of the technique applied. On the Grimsel granodiorite matrix, matrix porosity existing in situ and artefacts of stress release and physical disturbance, induced by sampling and sample preparation, were clearly distinguished, allowing in situ porosity to be quantified. Laboratory work with conventional techniques tends to overestimate the porosity of the rock matrix, hence leading to an overestimation of in situ matrix diffusion. The implications of these differences to a repository performance assessment are assessed with a couple of examples from existing assessments, and recommendations for future approaches to the examination of in situ matrix porosity are made.     

Inverse modeling of multicomponent reactive transport through single and dual porosity media

Compacted bentonite is foreseen as buffer material for high-level radioactive waste in deep geological repositories because it provides hydraulic isolation, chemical stability, and radionuclide sorption. A wide range of laboratory tests were performed within the framework of FEBEX (Full-scale Engineered Barrier EXperiment) project to characterize buffer properties and develop numerical models for FEBEX bentonite. Here we present inverse single and dual-continuum multicomponent reactive transport models of a long-term permeation test performed on a 2.5 cm long sample of FEBEX bentonite. Initial saline bentonite porewater was flushed with 5.5 pore volumes of fresh granitic water. Water flux and chemical composition of effluent waters were monitored during almost 4 years. The model accounts for solute advection and diffusion and geochemical reactions such as aqueous complexation, acid-base, cation exchange, protonation/deprotonation by surface complexation and dissolution/precipitation of calcite, chalcedony and gypsum. All of these processes are assumed at local equilibrium. Similar to previous studies of bentonite porewater chemistry on batch systems which attest the relevance of protonation/deprotonation on buffering pH, our results confirm that protonation/deprotonation is a key process in maintaining a stable pH under dynamic transport conditions. Breakthrough curves of reactive species are more sensitive to initial porewater concentration than to effective diffusion coefficient. Optimum estimates of initial porewater chemistry of saturated compacted FEBEX bentonite are obtained by solving the inverse problem of multicomponent reactive transport. While the single-continuum model reproduces the trends of measured data for most chemical species, it fails to match properly the long tails of most breakthrough curves. Such limitation is overcome by resorting to a dual-continuum reactive transport model.     

Interpretation of injection-withdrawal tracer experiments conducted between two wells in a large single fracture

Tracer experiments conducted using a flow field established by injecting water into one borehole and withdrawing water from another are often used to establish connections and investigate dispersion in fractured rock. As a result of uncertainty in the uniqueness of existing models used for interpretation, this method has not been widely used to investigate more general transport processes including matrix diffusion or advective solute exchange between mobile and immobile zones of fluid. To explore the utility of the injection-withdrawal method as a general investigative tool and with the intent to resolve the transport processes in a discrete fracture, two tracer experiments were conducted using the injection-withdrawal configuration. The experiments were conducted in a fracture which has a large aperture (>500 microm) and horizontally pervades a dolostone formation. One experiment was conducted in the direction of the hydraulic gradient and the other in the direction opposite to the natural gradient. Two tracers having significantly different values of the free-water diffusion coefficient were used. To interpret the experiments, a hybrid numerical-analytical model was developed which accounts for the arcuate shape of the flow field, advection-dispersion in the fracture, diffusion into the matrix adjacent to the fracture, and the presence of natural flow in the fracture. The model was verified by comparison to a fully analytical solution and to a well-known finite-element model. Interpretation of the tracer experiments showed that when only one tracer, advection-dispersion, and matrix diffusion are considered, non-unique results were obtained. However, by using multiple tracers and by accounting for the presence of natural flow in the fracture, unique interpretations were obtained in which a single value of matrix porosity was estimated from the results of both experiments. The estimate of porosity agrees well with independent measurements of porosity obtained from core samples. This suggests that: (i) the injection-withdrawal method is a viable tool for the investigation of general transport processes provided all relevant experimental conditions are considered and multiple conservative tracers are used; and (ii) for the conditions of the experiments conducted in this study, the dominant mechanism for exchange of solute between the fracture and surrounding medium is matrix diffusion.     

Removal of sulphur dioxide in a two-dimensional rain system based on a scale analysis of the conservation equations

Since rain systems show a wide variation in structure in both time and space, it is virtually impossible to model in detail the behaviour of sulphur passing through a rain system. Instead, an attempt has been made to determine the scale of the major processes going on in a frontal rain system based on the conservation equations for cloudwater, rainwater, SO₂ in air, sulphate in cloud and sulphate in rainwater. When this procedure is followed it is found that cloud and rainwater amounts are determined largely as a dynamic balance between cloudwater condensation and accretion of cloud drops by rain. The removal of SO₂ in rain is mainly determined by the oxidation of SO₂ in cloud, enhanced by oxidation in rain. In the case when oxidation of SO₂ by O₃ is the primary oxidation pathway a simple formula is derived for the fractional removal efficiency, which shows which parameters are of greatest importance and has potential use in the current generation of long-range transport models. This formula shows that the removal efficiency is a strongly non-linear function of sulphur dioxide concentration. At regional average SO₂ concentrations removal is efficient, but decreases rapidly at higher SO₂ concentrations.     

Two-phase flow and transport in a single fracture-porous medium system

The prognosis for the remediation of contaminated fractured media is much worse than that for more homogeneous units. Fractures act as conduits for the flow of dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs), while diffusion is responsible for the storage of dissolved mass in the surrounding matrix. A numerical model incorporating aqueous phase transport in a variable-aperture fracture and its surrounding matrix is developed and coupled with an existing two-phase flow model. The processes of transient two-phase flow, non-equilibrium dissolution, advective–dispersive transport in the fracture, and three-dimensional matrix diffusion are included in the model. Results from various investigations show that the DNAPL distribution is very sensitive to variations in aperture within a single fracture. Diffusion-controlled mass removal from both the matrix and from the hydraulically inaccessible zones within the fracture itself result in extremely large time frames for significant mass removal from these systems. Success in aqueous phase mass removal from the matrix is very sensitive to the effective fracture spacing. The hydraulic gradient in the fracture only affects the amount of water removed from the system, and does not greatly affect the amount of time required to remove the contaminant mass from the matrix. The ability to remove mass is somewhat sensitive to the porosity and effective matrix diffusion coefficient over the range of expected values.     

Kinetic modeling of virus transport at the field scale

Bacteriophage removal by soil passage in two field studies was re-analyzed with the goal to investigate differences between one- and two-dimensional modeling approaches, differences between one- and two-site kinetic sorption models, and the role of heterogeneities in the soil properties. The first study involved removal of bacteriophages MS2 and PRDI by dune recharge, while the second study represented removal of MS2 by deep well injection. In both studies, removal was higher during the first meters of soil passage than thereafter. The software packages HYDRUS-ID and HYDRUS-2D, which simulate water flow and solute transport in one- and two-dimensional variably saturated porous media, respectively, were used. The two codes were modified by incorporating reversible adsorption to two types of kinetic sites. Tracer concentrations were used first to calibrate flow and transport parameters of both models before analyzing transport of bacteriophages. The one-dimensional one-site model did not fully describe the tails of the measured breakthrough curves of MS2 and PRD1 from the dune recharge study. While the one-dimensional one-site model predicted a sudden decrease in virus concentrations immediately after the peaks, measured data displayed much smoother decline and tailing. The one-dimensional two-site model simulated the overall behavior of the breakthrough curves very well. The two-dimensional one-site model predicted a more gradual decrease in virus concentrations after the peaks than the one-dimensional one-site model, but not as good as the one-dimensional two-site model. The dimensionality of the problem hence can partly explain the smooth decrease in concentration after peak breakthrough. The two-dimensional two-site model provided the best results. Values for k(att2) and k(det2) could not be determined at the last two of four monitoring wells, thus suggesting that either a second type of kinetic sites is present in the first few meters of dune passage and not beyond the second monitoring well, or that effects of soil heterogeneity and dimensionality of the problem overshadowed this process. Variations between single collector efficiencies were relatively small, whereas collision efficiencies varied greatly. This implies that the nonlinear removal of MS2 and PRD1 is mainly caused by variations in interactions between grain and virus surfaces rather than by physical heterogeneity of the porous medium. Similarly, a two-site model performed better than the one-site model in describing MS2 concentrations for the deep well injection study. However, the concentration data were too sparse in this study to have much confidence in the fitted parameters.     

Characterizing interactions of socioeconomic development and environmental impact at a watershed scale

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - Worldwide socioeconomic development has resulted in huge irretrievable environmental problems in various ecosystems. This study employed seven coastal...     

Metal accumulation by submerged macrophytes in eutrophic lakes at the watershed scale

Metal concentrations (Al, Ba, Ca, K, Li, Mg, Na, Se, Sr and Ti) in submerged macrophytes and corresponding water and sediments were studied in 24 eutrophic lakes along the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River (China). Results showed that these eutrophic lakes have high metal concentrations in both water and sediments because of human activities. Average concentrations of Al and Na in tissues of submerged macrophytes were very high in sampled eutrophic lakes. By comparison, Ceratophyllum demersum and Najas marina accumulated more metals (e.g. Ba, Ca, K, Mg, Na, Sr and Ti). Strong positive correlations were found between metal concentrations in tissues of submerged macrophytes, probably because of co-accumulation of metals. The concentrations of Li, Mg, Na and Sr in tissues of submerged macrophytes significantly correlated with their corresponding water values, but not sediment values.     

Development of global soil erosion research at the watershed scale: a bibliometric analysis of the past decade

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - At the watershed scale, soil erosion is a cascading system that includes detachment–transport–deposition processes while sediment yield is...     

一体式MFC-好氧MBR运行效果及膜污染特性

膜生物反应器(MBR)是一种高效的污水处理工艺,而微生物燃料电池(MFC)能利用NO-3作为电子受体进行脱氮。为解决膜生物反应器(MBR)脱氮效率低和膜污染问题,建立了一套能够进行脱氮、有效抑制膜污染的一体式MFC-好氧MBR新工艺。以开路MFC-MBR反应器为对照,对耦合系统中污水处理效果、膜污染情况进行研究。研究表明,2套系统的COD去除率均超过88%,对NH4-N的去除均达到99%。闭路MFC-MBR系统TN去除率达到69.4%,高于开路系统的55.3%。混合液的MLVSS/MLSS稳定在88%左右,同时耦合系统能够改善污泥混合液的性质,zeta电位的绝对值和粘度较开路系统有所减少,污泥颗粒平均体积粒径(233.482μm)较开路系统(94.877μm)有明显增加,膜清洗周期延长了41.17%。     

Methodology for siting ambient air monitors at the neighborhood scale

In siting a monitor to measure compliance with U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for particulate matter (PM), there is a need to characterize variations in PM concentration within a neighborhood-scale region to achieve monitor siting objectives. A simple methodology is provided here for the selection of a neighborhood-scale site for meeting either of the two objectives identified for PM monitoring. This methodology is based on analyzing middle-scale (from 100 to 500 m) data from within the area of interest. The required data can be obtained from widely available dispersion models and emissions databases. The performance of the siting methodology was evaluated in a neighborhood-scale field study conducted in Hudson County, NJ, to characterize the area's inhalable particulate (PM10) concentrations. Air monitors were located within a 2- by 2-km area in the vicinity of the Lincoln Tunnel entrance in Hudson County. Results indicate the siting methodology performed well, providing a positive relationship between the predicted concentration rank at each site and the actual rank experienced during the field study. Also discussed are factors that adversely affected the predictive capabilities of the model.     

一体式MFC-好氧MBR运行效果及膜污染特性

膜生物反应器（MBR）是一种高效的污水处理工艺,而微生物燃料电池（MFC）能利用N0i作为电子受体进行脱氮。为解决膜生物反应器（MBR）脱氮效率低和膜污染问题,建立了一套能够进行脱氮、有效抑制膜污染的一体式MFC-好氧MBR新工艺。以开路MFC—MBR反应器为对照,对耦合系统中污水处理效果、膜污染情况进行研究。研究表明,2套系统的COD去除率均超过88％,对NH4-N的去除均达到99％。闭路MFC—MBR系统TN去除率达到69．4％,高于开路系统的55．3％。混合液的MLVSS／MLSS稳定在88％左右,同时耦合系统能够改善污泥混合液的性质,zeta电位的绝对值和粘度较开路系统有所减少,污泥颗粒平均体积粒径（233．482μm）较开路系统（94．877μm）有明显增加,膜清洗周期延长了41．17％。     

单液滴微萃取-气相色谱/质谱法检测水中多环芳烃

采用单液滴微萃取-气相色谱/质谱(GC/MS)法建立了检测水中多环芳烃(PAHs)的方法,研究了萃取溶剂种类、萃取时间、搅拌速度对萃取效率的影响,确定了最佳单液滴微萃取条件,该法用于水中PAHs的检测,16种PAHs的线性范围为0.2～7.0μg/mL,相关系数≥0.9784,检出限为0.002～0.190μg/mL,相对标准偏差为7.1%～15.1%,加标回收率在81%～122%.     

Monitoring change in mountainous dry-heath vegetation at a regional scale using multitemporal Landsat TM data

Vegetation cover-change analysis requires selection of an appropriate set of variables for measuring and characterizing change. Satellite sensors like Landsat TM offer the advantages of wide spatial coverage while providing land-cover information. This facilitates the monitoring of surface processes. This study discusses change detection in mountainous dry-heath communities in J?mtland County, Sweden, using satellite data. Landsat-5 TM and Landsat-7 ETM+ data from 1984, 1994 and 2000, respectively, were used. Different change detection methods were compared after the images had been radiometrically normalized, georeferenced and corrected for topographic effects. For detection of the classes change--no change the NDVI image differencing method was the most accurate with an overall accuracy of 94% (K = 0.87). Additional change information was extracted from an alternative method called NDVI regression analysis and vegetation change in 3 categories within mountainous dry-heath communities were detected. By applying a fuzzy set thresholding technique the overall accuracy was improved from of 65% (K = 0.45) to 74% (K = 0.59). The methods used generate a change product showing the location of changed areas in sensitive mountainous heath communities, and it also indicates the extent of the change (high, moderate and unchanged vegetation cover decrease). A total of 17% of the dry and extremely dry-heath vegetation within the study area has changed between 1984 and 2000. On average 4% of the studied heath communities have been classified as high change, i.e. have experienced "high vegetation cover decrease" during the period. The results show that the low alpine zone of the southern part of the study area shows the highest amount of "high vegetation cover decrease". The results also show that the main change occurred between 1994 and 2000.     

Evaluation of a low-cost transient mass measurement system in vehicle inspection and maintenance testing: results of a Gordon-Darby Study

A study was performed at a Gordon-Darby centralized inspection and maintenance (I/M) test lane in Phoenix, AZ, in December 1999 for the purpose of evaluating the accuracy of production Vehicle Mass Analysis System (VMAS) equipment relative to standard IM240 equipment. Simultaneous transient mass measurements were made on random vehicles using VMAS and IM240 systems on two test lanes during regular I/M testing. Cumulative mass emissions for 846 valid tests were correlated using least-squares regression analysis. Correlation indices were > 0.99 for both carbon monoxide (CO) and nitric oxide (NO) and 0.93 for hydrocarbon (HC), and the standard errors of regression were 1.38 g/mi, 0.123 g/mi, and 0.245 g/mi for CO, NO, and HC, respectively. These strong correlation results are reflected by high excess emission identification rates of 99.4% for CO, 99.3% for NO, and 94.5% for HC when applying final IM240 cut points with a < 2% error of commission for all pollutants.     

超声波/紫外线一体化反应器用于污水消毒的中试研究

采用自行设计的超声波/紫外线一体化推流式反应器对污水厂二级出水进行消毒实验,考察了超声波协同紫外线消毒的消毒效率以及对消毒过程对水质和紫外灯管结垢的影响。结果表明：超声波协同紫外线消毒可以强化单独紫外线的消毒效率,且超声波功率密度越大,水力停留时间越长,消毒效果越好;当超声波功率密度为70 W·L-1,水力停留时间60 s时,粪大肠杆菌的对数去除率可以达到3.85 log,比单独紫外消毒增加了40.7%。同时,超声波协同紫外线消毒还可以降低紫外灯管的结垢速率。虽然超声波的引入会对水质（COD、UV254和浊度）产生轻微波动,但是并不影响出水水质。     

Assessing the impact of VOC-contaminated groundwater on surface water at the city scale

This study is believed to be one of the first to assess the impact of urban VOC-(volatile organic compound) contaminated groundwater on river-water quality at the city scale. A network of riverbed piezometers was used to study the 7.4-km urbanised reach of the River Tame that flows across the groundwater-effluent unconfined Triassic sandstone aquifer underlying the city of Birmingham (UK). Aquifer groundwater contained significant chlorinated VOC contamination due to the city's industrial heritage. Chlorinated VOC-contaminated baseflow was widespread along the reach with trichloroethene (TCE) dominant. VOC concentrations in riverbed piezometers were in the range 0.1-100 microg/l with typical regulatory limits occasionally exceeded by an order of magnitude. Although anaerobic biodegradation products such as cis-dichloroethene were widespread, they were unlikely to have formed in the generally aerobic riverbed. The lack of anaerobic conditions was ascribed to insufficient accumulation of low-permeability, organic-carbon rich riverbed sediments in this medium-high energy river. Assumptions a priori that natural attenuation of chlorinated VOCs will occur via reductive dechlorination in urban riverbeds are likely in error, particularly where deposits of medium-high permeability exist transmitting much of the baseflow. Surface-water quality impacts were nevertheless still low with in-river TCE increasing by just 2 microg/l over the 7.4-km reach. Agreement of baseflow contaminant flux estimates based on five flow-concentration product methods was achieved to within an order of magnitude with 22-200 kg/yr of TCE estimated to discharge to the 7.4-km reach (equivalent to 0.8-7.5 mg/d/m2 of riverbed). Such uncertainty was not regarded as unreasonable when the large measurement scale and geological and chemical heterogeneities are considered. Improved flux estimation methods and greater monitoring densities are nevertheless warranted. Considering Birmingham's long industrial history and known incidence of VOC-contaminated groundwater, the city-scale impact of VOC-contaminated groundwater upon surface-water quality was judged to be relatively modest.