The effects of globalization on Ecological Footprints: an empirical analysis

Whether globalization is sustainable is a contested issue. The quantitative literature on the Maastricht Globalization Index (MGI) and the KOF index of globalization shows that globalization contributes positively to economic and human development, environmental performance, mortality, gender equality and physical integrity rights. However, globalization also drives within-country income inequality, especially in developing countries. Evidence on the effects of globalization on the ecological environment does not provide clear patterns; various dimensions of globalization have different effects on various pollutants. This article analyzes the statistical relationship between the most recent MGI (2012 edition) and the ecological dimension of sustainable development. The latter will be operationalized by considering four variants of the Ecological Footprint. The relation between globalization and sustainable development will be controlled for GDP per capita as a proxy for affluence and report the results for Pearson’s correlations and multivariate regressions for up to 171 countries. We conclude that the overall index of globalization significantly increases the Ecological Footprint of consumption, exports and imports. The decomposition of globalization into different domains reveals that apart from the political dimension, all dimensions drive human pressures and demands on the environment. Globalization needs to go into new directions if it is to make a contribution toward all aspects of sustainable development.     

The Logical Foundations of Ecological Footprints

An academic debate about ecological footprints has started at last. It was set in motion by a critical article in Ecological Economics, 29(1), 61–72, by Jeroen C.J.M. van den Bergh and Harmen Verbruggen (henceforth B&V). Being ourselves major users of ecological footprints, we disagree with most of the criticisms that B&V level at the concept. In our experience, there are widespread misunderstandings surrounding the methodology of eco-footprinting, so it seems a good time to set out the logical foundations of eco-footprinting for all those who may have an interest in the subject – surely extending beyond the readers of Ecological Economics. Thus our approach will be a general exposition. However, even those who have not read the article by B&V will doubtless benefit from knowing the sort of criticisms which are made against ecological footprints, so we will also attempt to explain and respond to the criticisms raised by B&V.     

Ecological half-life of 137Cs in lichens in an alpine region

About 17 years after the Chernobyl accident, lichen samples were collected in an alpine region in Austria (Bad Gastein), which was heavily contaminated by the Chernobyl fallout. Measured 137Cs activity concentrations in selected lichens (Cetraria islandica, Cetraria cucullata, and Cladonia arbuscula) ranged from 100 to 1100 Bq kg(-1) dry weight, depending on lichen species and sampling site. Ecological half-lives for 137Cs in different lichen samples, obtained by comparison with earlier measurements of the same lichen species at the same site, ranged from 2 to 6 years, with average values between 3 and 4 years. Comparison with earlier studies indicated that ecological half-lives hardly changed during the last 10 years, suggesting that ecological clearance mechanisms (e.g. washout or soil transfer) did not vary substantially at the selected sampling area.     

移民型城市生态人居环境评价与优化研究

三峡工程建设以来,在大规模移民迁建的拉动下,形成了大量库区移民城市.良好的人居环境是保障移民型城市稳步发展的关键,也是建设生态城市的核心问题.本文基于生态人居清洁、舒适、低环境负荷的特点,以三峡移民第一城--重庆市万州区为例,对其1999-2005年居住适宜性水平进行了评价和分析,并基于评价结果提出了相应的优化调整建议.针对库区移民城市强调社会结构重建的特点,本文分别从基础设施、居住系统、生态环境、社会人文四个方面筛选指标,建立三级评价指标体系,综合运用层次分析法和熵权法确定指标权重,有效避免了主、客观定权方式各自的弱点.评价结果表明:7年来万州城区宜居水平虽呈上升趋势,但综合指数集中在0.45～0.6之间,距离生态人居的标准还存在明显差距.其中,基础设施滞后问题尤为突出,社会人文、生态环境指数自2000年后一直呈下降的趋势.     

城市绿色廊道的生态规划方法探究

城市绿色廊道的生态规划是当今国际上重要的城市可持续发展途径之一。本文界定了绿色廊道的概念、特征、类型与作用;然后概述了城市绿色廊道在中西方的发展历程,重点分析了西方绿色廊道各发展阶段的表现形式和规划思想;最后,在此基础上探讨性地提出一套切实可行的适用于当前我国城市绿色廊道的生态规划方法。绿色廊道的生态规划将利于构筑城市绿色生态网络,有效改善城市环境并引导城市健康发展,促进城市可持续发展。     

Activity of Beavers as an Ecological Factor Affecting the Zooplankton of Small Rivers

The role of beavers in the transformation of small rivers is elucidated by analyzing the taxonomic and trophic structure of zooplankton in ponds differing in age, water flow rate, and the degree of overgrowing with higher aquatic plants. The building activity of beavers in the river system promotes the formation of biotopes of the ecotone type, in which the planktonic invertebrate community develops some features similar to or different from those of zooplanktonic communities from lakes and rivers undergoing anthropogenic eutrophication. The main distinctive feature of response to this activity in zooplankton is that its development reaches a plateau at the early and middle stages of succession, compared to that under conditions of anthropogenic eutrophication. For small rivers, the concept of zoogenic eutrophication (in addition to anthropogenic) is proposed.     

Ecological footprint: an indicator of environmental sustainability of a surface coal mine

Ecological footprint of mining can be used as an indicator to monitor and regulate mining operations and ensure long-term environmental sustainability. It can be viewed as a mining footprint, which is surrogate of the environmental impacts of mining. In this paper, a methodological framework is developed to demonstrate how ecological footprint can be used as an indicator of environmental degradation. Nine air quality and 26 soil quality samples are collected from the adjoining area of a mechanized coal mine, located in Raniganj coal mining belt of Burdwan district, West Bengal. Geographical information system is used for data interpolation and preparation of air and soil quality maps. The weights of different air and soil quality parameters are calculated by running principal component analysis. These derived weights are used for preparation of final composite air and soil quality maps. The composite maps show the mining footprints, expressed as land equivalent, around the active mine sites. The impact zones reveal the extent of degradation of the soil and air qualities in the areas near a mine. It is found that the impact zones, with respect to air and soil qualities, extend over areas which are 7.7 and 7.8 times the actual mining areas, that is, the area covered under mining operations, respectively. The results show the extent of degradation of air and soil qualities of the area. At different stages of mining, these footprints can be used as indicators to reveal the areas where soil and air qualities are adversely impacted.     

中国公众环境意识的变化趋势

了解公众环境意识的变化趋势对于提高公众环境意识水平至关重要。为此,本文以已有调查报告中发布的数据为基础,从公众的环保意识、环保行为和环保满意度3个方面对比分析1998-2007年我国公众环境意识的总体变化,采用综合评估法分析过去10年我国公众环境意识的变化特征及原因,并对未来环境意识的变化进行趋势分析。研究结果表明:过去10年,我国公众环境意识的总体水平呈上升趋势,其发展过程呈现出类似"环境库兹涅茨曲线"的特征。预计未来我国公众环境意识的总体水平将呈现加速上升趋势,2008-2017年进入快速上升阶段,2019年将达到较高的稳定水平。因此,建议未来应加强农村和低教育群体的环境认知教育,激发企业的环保积极性,鼓励城市公众进行垃圾分类和绿色消费。     

Ecological distribution conflicts as forces for sustainability: an overview and conceptual framework

Can ecological distribution conflicts turn into forces for sustainability? This overview paper addresses in a systematic conceptual manner the question of why, through whom, how, and when conflicts over the use of the environment may take an active role in shaping transitions toward sustainability. It presents a conceptual framework that schematically maps out the linkages between (a) patterns of (unsustainable) social metabolism, (b) the emergence of ecological distribution conflicts, (c) the rise of environmental justice movements, and (d) their potential contributions for sustainability transitions. The ways how these four processes can influence each other are multi-faceted and often not a foretold story. Yet, ecological distribution conflicts can have an important role for sustainability, because they relentlessly bring to light conflicting values over the environment as well as unsustainable resource uses affecting people and the planet. Environmental justice movements, born out of such conflicts, become key actors in politicizing such unsustainable resource uses, but moreover, they take sometimes also radical actions to stop them. By drawing on creative forms of mobilizations and diverse repertoires of action to effectively reduce unsustainabilities, they can turn from ‘victims’ of environmental injustices into ‘warriors’ for sustainability. But when will improvements in sustainability be lasting? By looking at the overall dynamics between the four processes, we aim to foster a more systematic understanding of the dynamics and roles of ecological distribution conflicts within sustainability processes.     

云南省15年生态足迹与承载力分析

定量测度可持续发展状态是可持续发展研究的热点。M．Wackemagel等提出并完善的生态足迹模型就是一种定量测量可持续状态的方法。该方法通过比较一定区域人类社会消费需求所需土地（生态足迹）与该区域可支持的生物生产性土地（生态承载力）来判断区域发展的可持续状态。以云南省为例。对1988至2003年生态足迹和生态承载力进行了计算分析。结果表明：15年来。云南省人均生态足迹快速增长，由1988年的0．8568hm^2增长到2003年的1．5845hm^2，年均增幅达4．2％；在人均承载力基本不变的情况下。由于人口增长和消费水平的快速提高，生态赤字持续扩大，从1988年的0．0465hm^2增加到2003年的0．6791hm^2，年增幅超过20％。     

中华文明的生态复兴:兼论生态文明思想的科学基础

生态文明思想不仅为了应对目前随工业文明发展而出现的种种不和谐、不可持续现象的挑战,而且要以一种崭新的文明思想和形态实现中华文明在新时代的升华.从而为中华民族的全面复兴奠定文化和思想基础.仅凭经济的发展不可能实现民族的复兴,中华民族的兴盛有赖于中华文明的复兴.文明的升华和进步不仅是经济社会发展的结果,更是其发展的前提.西方的兴盛不仅在于工业化大生产及相应的设备和科技的全球普及.更在于与工业文明相一致的西方思想和文化的全球影响.在这个意义上,西方的兴盛更准确地说是起始乎工业革命之前的文艺复兴.建立在生态科学基础上的生态文明思想与中华文明有诸多相似之处.在全球经济整合、生物圈遭到严重威胁的今天,中华文明可望以生态文明的形态得以升华和复兴,并从根本上为人类文明的发展做出更大贡献.     

当代生态维护的困境与生态新理念的建构

人类已有的生态维护都是从具体文化出发所做出的维护,不同文化规约下的不同民族对生态理念内涵的界定也因文化而异。在全球化背景下的今天,我们所所倡导的人类生态维护理念也需从具体民族入手,对其传统生态知识进行发掘与整理,激发当各族人民对自己拥有的传统知识的自信,不断地提升该区域生态知识技能,充分地发挥该区域各民族生态知识价值,实现对区域生态环境的高效利用与精心维护。     

经济系统与生态系统的类比分析

产业生态学的基本问题之一是对生态系统与经济系统类比关系的研究，通过类比可以对重组经济系统的思想、理论和方法的研究提供借鉴。该文首先分析了对两个系统进行类比分析的必要性，进而采用类比分析的方法，论述了生态系统和经济系统的相同和差异。指出：两个系统的相似性为经济系统向生态系统学习提供了基础，而差异则蕴含着经济系统重组的方向。     

基于生态健康的农地生态承载力评价

针对农地生态承载力缺乏统一的概念和计量模型等问题，提出基于生态系统健康的农地生态承载力概念。构建基于生态系统健康的生态承载力理论框架，在此基础上建立生态承载力计量模型，给出生态承载力评价指标体系和标准的确定方法。以淮安市为研究区域，建立了适合该区域的基于生态系统健康的生态承载力评价指标体系、权重和评价标准，并对淮安市1996—2004以及规划年的生态承载力水平进行评价和深入分析。结果表明：淮安市农地生态承载力水平仍处于健康状态且不断提高。其中，生态弹性水平一直维持在非常健康状态，人类活动潜力逐步由亚健康状态过渡到健康状态，资源承载力水平则不断下降。以后应加强对农地生态承载力各指标进行优化，才能从根本上降低区域农地生态承载力压力，提高农地生态承载力水平。     

雨崩徒步旅游者旅游净生态足迹研究

将旅游净生态足迹的思想首次引入国内,阐述其内涵及计算方法,应用于云南梅里雪山腹地--雨崩村的徒步旅游者,对高生态足迹地区游客到低生态足迹地区进行旅游活动的情况进行分析,发现在一定停留时间下,游客到雨崩徒步旅游一次的旅游净生态足迹会很小甚至出现负值,说明进行这样一次旅游活动对于减轻全球环境压力是有贡献的,对"旅游是一种高消耗的活动"的绝对性提出质疑.从寻找游客旅游毛生态足迹和客源地日常生态足迹之间差异的角度提山的旅游净生态足迹不仅可以从宏观角度对旅游活动的环境影响作出更为客观的评价,还可从全球环境保护的角度为旅游客源市场的开发提供策略指导.最后分析讨论了旅游净生态足迹的三种取值情况,及旅游者从事旅游活动的类型、客源地与旅游地之间的距离及交通方式、旅游者在旅游地的停留时间三个主要影响因素.     

The Holocene Dynamics of Vegetation and Ecological Conditions in the Polar Urals

Palynological, paleocarpological, and paleoentomological analyses of frozen peat deposits near Lake Pereval'noe, the Polar Urals, were performed to reveal the main stages of change in the pattern of vegetation over the period from the beginning of warming after the last Pleistocene glaciation to the late Holocene. Nine to four thousand years ago, the study region (at the present-day upper boundary of open larch forests) was covered with taiga forests, as the climate there was significantly warmer. These were larch–birch forests with an admixture of spruce and, later, spruce forests with larch and birch.     

我国农村生态环境保护社区“自组织”载体刍议

当前,我国农村生态环境保护社区"自组织"的载体是居委会,已经得到法律与行政层面的认可.本文认为,社区"自组织"的载体不能仅仅局限于村委会,无论在理念层面还是在实践层面,村委会都存在着缺陷与不足,不能完全代表村民利益共同体.合作组织具有很多优势,应当成为我国农村生态环境保护社区"自组织"的重要载体之一.当前,合作组织载体作用的发挥还面临着许多难题,例如如何处理与村委会的关系、如何保证合法性等等.为此,我们认为,当前必需把合作组织自身建设与政府支持以及规范相互结合起来,合作组织自身建设的重点在于规章制度等环节,政府支持的重点在于人力资源培训以及保证合法性等环节,政府规范的重点在于立法、监督以及矫正等环节.同时,我们还要加强合作组织网络、综合性合作组织以及跨村域合作组织的建设,形成利益嵌套格局,以真正发挥合作组织在农村生态环境保护中的载体作用.     

The Upper and Lower Ecological Limits of Specific Metabolic Power of Different Organisms

It has been demonstrated that bioenergetic properties of plants (independence of productivity from size, proportionality between radial growth of woody plants and plant mass, etc.) and animals are not related to the presumed universal linear relationship between metabolic power and body mass to the power of 3/4. This relationship is not true for plants and endothermic animals. The observed bioenergetic characteristics of these organisms are explained by simple biological and physical laws, including the existence of the lower and upper limits of the specific metabolic power of living matter.     

Ecological footprints and shadows in an urban estuary, Narragansett Bay, RI (USA)

Because the rise of cities in North America was much later than in many other parts of the world, their connections to the hinterland were influenced early in their development by railroads and steam-powered water transport. These fossil fuel-based links made it possible to widely separate the ??upstream?? autotrophic supporting systems from the heterotrophic cities. Here, we take a different look at the connection between a city (Providence, RI, USA) and its supporting natural systems by focusing on the export of industrial and metabolic wastes from the city to the ??downstream?? coastal ecosystem in Narragansett Bay. In this way, we can track the history of a city by examining the concentrations of nutrients, metals, and hydrocarbons in the water and sediments of the estuary. In the greater Providence metropolitan area at the head of Narragansett Bay, there was rapid population and industrial expansion during the 1800s without the proper infrastructure to deal with water supply for public safety and health. On the other hand, the absence of a public water supply kept industrial and metabolic wastes largely on land. However, from the fall of 1871, on with the construction of a public water supply and sewer system, human wastes began flowing into the estuary. By reconstructing the historical record of metals and other pollutants, we illustrate clear temporal and spatial gradients of urban impact on the bay. Unfortunately, while numerous studies during the 1970s and 1980s focused on documenting metal and hydrocarbon pollution in the bay, there has been little effort to quantify the impact of mitigation efforts that have greatly reduced the input of metals and hydrocarbons to the system. Nutrient reductions are more recent and ongoing.     

Ecological Rhetoric through Vicarious Narrative: The Enduring Significance of Garrett Hardin's The Tragedy of the Commons

“The Tragedy of the Commons,” a 1968 article on overpopulation by Garrett Hardin, achieved rapid and widespread popularity, and still remains influential. Hardin uses an extended hypothetical example that functions as a vicarious narrative to postulate a syllogistic proof he then applies enthymematically and by analogy to social and environmental issues. Although Hardin's inconsistent application of his analogy reveals that adopting his rhetorical strategy in environmental communication necessitates acceptance of neither Hardin's overpopulation thesis nor his political and social views, his article remains a landmark in environmental as well as ecological rhetoric.