Citizen Participation in Collaborative Watershed Partnerships

Collaborative efforts are increasingly being used to address complex environmental problems, both in the United States and abroad. This is especially true in the growing field of collaborative watershed management, where diverse stakeholders work together to develop and advance water-quality goals. Active citizen participation is viewed as a key component, yet groups often struggle to attract and maintain citizen engagement. This study examined citizen participation behavior in collaborative watershed partnerships by way of a written survey administered to citizen members of 12 collaborative watershed groups in Ohio. Results for the determination of who joins such groups were consistent with the dominant-status model of participation because group members were not demographically representative of the broader community. The dominant-status model, however, does not explain which members are more likely to actively participate in group activities. Instead, individual characteristics, including political activity, knowledge, and comfort in sharing opinions with others, were positively correlated with active participation. In addition, group characteristics, including government-based membership, rural location, perceptions of open communication, perceptions that the group has enough technical support to accomplish its goals, and perceived homogeneity of participant opinions, were positively correlated with active participation. Overall, many group members did not actively participate in group activities.     

Results of Community Deliberation About Social Impacts of Ecological Restoration: Comparing Public Input of Self-Selected Versus Actively Engaged Community Members

Participatory processes for obtaining residents' input about community impacts of proposed environmental management actions have long raised concerns about who participates in public involvement efforts and whose interests they represent. This study explored methods of broad-based involvement and the role of deliberation in social impact assessment. Interactive community forums were conducted in 27 communities to solicit public input on proposed alternatives for recovering wild salmon in the Pacific Northwest US. Individuals identified by fellow residents as most active and involved in community affairs ("AE residents") were invited to participate in deliberations about likely social impacts of proposed engineering and ecological actions such as dam removal. Judgments of these AE participants about community impacts were compared with the judgments of residents motivated to attend a forum out of personal interest, who were designated as self-selected ("SS") participants. While the magnitude of impacts rated by SS participants across all communities differed significantly from AE participants' ratings, in-depth analysis of results from two community case studies found that both AE and SS participants identified a large and diverse set of unique impacts, as well as many of the same kinds of impacts. Thus, inclusion of both kinds of residents resulted in a greater range of impacts for consideration in the environmental impact study. The case study results also found that the extent to which similar kinds of impacts are specified by AE and SS group members can differ by type of community. Study results caution against simplistic conclusions drawn from this approach to community-wide public participation. Nonetheless, the results affirm that deliberative methods for community-based impact assessment involving both AE and SS residents can provide a more complete picture of perceived impacts of proposed restoration activities.     

Non-governmental organisations and public participation in local environmental decision-making in the Czech Republic

This paper examines the extent to which institutional provisions for participation were implemented in Czech communities during the transition period, the types of participatory practices that emerged and the role that NGOs played in fostering community involvement in environmental decision-making. The results indicate that there was virtually no relationship between community action and the presence of active social, cultural, professional and religious organisations. In contrast, participation and mobilisation were more likely to emerge in communities where local, national or international environmental organisations were active. These patterns suggest that specialised NGOs may be instrumental in promoting public participation in local environmental policy and planning processes in states that historically have not had a non-profit sector.     

Non-governmental organisations and public participation in local environmental decision-making in the Czech Republic

This paper examines the extent to which institutional provisions for participation were implemented in Czech communities during the transition period, the types of participatory practices that emerged and the role that NGOs played in fostering community involvement in environmental decision-making. The results indicate that there was virtually no relationship between community action and the presence of active social, cultural, professional and religious organisations. In contrast, participation and mobilisation were more likely to emerge in communities where local, national or international environmental organisations were active. These patterns suggest that specialised NGOs may be instrumental in promoting public participation in local environmental policy and planning processes in states that historically have not had a non-profit sector.     

Factors predicting proclivity and intensity to volunteer for the environment in the US and South Korea

This research compares environmental volunteering among students in South Korea and the US (n = 3612). Given differing environmental histories of these countries, we explore whether and to what extent volunteer proclivity and intensity varies, and potential factors that explain existing variation. Findings suggest that American students are more likely to volunteer for, and devote time to, environmental causes, while South Korean students differ on socio-economic correlates of such behaviour. In a global society, understanding determinants of environmental volunteer participation is critical to the management of environmental NGOs that are involved in broad-based and participatory planning, educating stakeholders and legitimising environmental advocacy.     

Promoting the use of environmental data collected by concerned citizens through information and communication technologies

Public participation within environmental monitoring may contribute to increasing the knowledge on the state of the environment at the same time it promotes citizens' involvement in environmental protection. However, the use of voluntary collected data is limited due to a lack of confidence in data collection procedures. Additionally, data quality is often unknown and the data are usually dispersed and non-structured. Information and communication technologies (ICT) may promote the use of voluntary collected data through the development of a collaborative system that incorporates tools and methodologies to facilitate data collection, access and validation. Furthermore, the use of ICT may promote public involvement within environmental monitoring, since it facilitates communication among all the stakeholders. This paper analyses the role of ICT in developing a system for environmental collaborative monitoring intending to promote the use of volunteer collected data. It starts by analysing the role of volunteers within environmental monitoring and continues analysing the potential of ICT to take advantage of the benefits of using data collected by citizens. A collaborative system that allows the public to express its knowledge on the state of the environment is described. Special emphasis is given to tools that explore non-traditional types of environmental data such as images, sounds and videos in association with spatial information. To illustrate the above mentioned concepts, a case study for beach quality monitoring developed within the Senses@Watch project, is described.     

Public support for ecosystem restoration in the Hudson River Valley,USA

We applied the Theory of Planned Behavior to help understand the relationships between environmental beliefs, support for ecosystem restoration actions, and willingness to pay (WTP) for restoration and protection goals in the Hudson River estuary, New York State, USA. We conducted a mail survey with 3,000 randomly-chosen local residents of the Hudson River estuary in the fall of 1999. As hypothesized, the broad ecosystem restoration goals of the Hudson River Estuary Action Plan were more strongly supported than the corresponding specific implementation actions. We found that beliefs and past behavior were better explanatory variables than sociodemographic characteristics for explaining people's support for ecosystem restoration actions and WTP for restoration and protection goals. Because ecosystem restoration goals appear to be more generally acceptable than specific restoration actions, proponents of restoration programs should not become complacent about the need for active public outreach and involvement even if initial restoration program discussions have been low in controversy. Efforts to assess and foster support for ecosystem restoration should be targeted toward audiences identified on the basis of beliefs and past behaviors rather than on sociodemographic characteristics.     

Exploring the current status of water governance and outcomes of community-based monitoring across the Oak Ridges Moraine,Southern Ontario,Canada

ABSTRACT

Community-based monitoring (CBM) activities are becoming increasingly prevalent in response to multiple factors, including reduced governmental capacity and increased public interest in environmental management. This research aims to explore how CBM has evolved in the Oak Ridges Moraine (ORM), southern Ontario, including an examination of strengths and challenges. Interviews with CBM stakeholders, provincial government staff, and conservation authority staff were combined with document analysis to explore the evolution and outcomes of ORM CBM activities. Results indicate that there is active CBM on the ORM and conservation authorities play a role in the shaping of CBM activities, although significant barriers remain to civil society participation in water governance. The case study results from the ORM were also considered in light of research emerging from the Nova Scotia experience of numerous civil society organisations involved in CBM.     

Advocates for environmental justice: the role of the champion in public participation implementation

That segment of the community I would say is just in general pretty disenfranchised. We found that if you want participation you have to go to them. I mean there are days when you just need to go knock on the door.

Brownfields developer in a poor urban neighbourhood

This article considers the role that champions play as advocates for socioeconomically disadvantaged community member involvement in environmental management decision-making. Six case studies of brownfields redevelopment projects located in poor urban neighbourhoods are examined. Analysis of these case studies reveals how champion behaviour, which has typically been studied only in the context of technological innovation, is enacted in public participation efforts in the service of environmental justice. The study finds that champions who emerge in these settings lead the development and implementation of non-standard public participation process innovations.     

Promoting community involvement at brownfields sites in socio-economically disadvantaged neighbourhoods

Brownfields programmes provide environmental justice to distressed communities by applying private sector remediation and real estate expertise to abandoned and contaminated properties. This study examines how brownfields developers and community support organisations operating in socio-economically disadvantaged neighbourhoods work to increase awareness of projects in the community, build trust between stakeholders and create mechanisms for community members to participate in brownfields decision making. Analysis of case study data from brownfields sites in four US cities shows that developers and non-governmental organisations can play important roles in fashioning redevelopment outcomes which benefit both developers and communities. When standard required outreach efforts are combined with non-traditional community involvement mechanisms, the result is often long-term support for redevelopment projects.     

Consensus Conferences – A Case Study: Publiforum in Switzerland with Special Respect to the Role of Lay Persons and Ethics

This paper focuses on experiences from a case study dealing with the Swiss type of a consensus conference called “PubliForum” concerning “Genetic Technology and Nutrition” (1999). Societal and ethical aspects of genetically modified food meanwhile can be seen as prototypes of topics depending on the involvement of the public through a participatory process. The important role of the lay perspective in this field seems to be accepted in practice. Nevertheless, there is still some theoretical controversy about the necessity and democratic legitimacy of participatory processes in general, and especially about those dealing with technological or environmental problems (sustainable development) concerning society. From an ethical point of view, a lot of heterogeneous problems concerning contents and procedures of public participation can be pointed out, not only on the theoretical level but also in practice, e.g., concerning the communication process between laypersons and experts. The intention of our paper is to give hints and to clarify criteria that support the communication process leading to a dialog of autonomous citizens and which especially consider ethical aspects in the field. One important result is that there must be an orientation for all members of a consensus conference having clear rules and knowing their different roles that support transparency, credibility, and fairness of the whole procedure and a “good product”: a substantial final document or citizens’ report. This paper presents results of the project Ethical Bio-TA Tools as funded by the European Commission, DG Research, under FP5, Quality of Life Programme.     

Bridging Disciplines, Knowledge Systems and Cultures in Pest Management

The success of research in integrated environmental and natural resource management relies on the participation and involvement of different disciplines and stakeholders. This can be difficult to achieve in practice because many initiatives fail to address the underlying social processes required for successful engagement and social learning. We used an action research approach to support a research-based group with a range of disciplinary and stakeholder expertise to critically reflect on their engagement practice and identify lessons around how to collaborate more effectively. This approach is provided here as a guide that can be used to support reflective research practice for engagement in other integration-based initiatives. This paper is set in the context of an integrated wildlife management research case study in New Zealand. We illustrate how multi-, inter- and trans-disciplinary approaches can provide a framework for considering the different conversations that need to occur in an integrated research program. We then outline rubrics that list the criteria required in inter- and trans-disciplinary collaborations, along with examples of effective engagement processes that directly support integration through such efforts. Finally, we discuss the implications of these experiences for other researchers and managers seeking to improve engagement and collaboration in integrated science, management and policy initiatives. Our experiences reaffirm the need for those involved in integrative initiatives to attend to the processes of engagement in both formal and informal settings, to provide opportunities for critical reflective practice, and to look for measures of success that acknowledge the importance of effective social process.     

Power,responsibility and justice: a review of local stakeholder participation in European flood risk management

Over the past few decades, there has been an increasing interest in the active involvement of local stakeholders in the management of floods in Europe. Such involvement is seen as necessary as the management of floods becomes more complex. Management approaches now seek to include a range of potential measures to reduce risk (e.g. structural defence, spatial planning and property-level protection measures). Local stakeholder involvement is seen to be important because governments lack the capacities such as knowledge and funding required to deliver all these measures alone. This paper focuses on the implications that more participative approaches have on the fairness of European flood risk management (FRM). Studies of environmental justice are well placed to address this question because they are interested in who is included and excluded from decisions related to the distribution of environmental goods (resources) and bads (risks). Existing literature suggests that fair decision-making processes (procedural justice) can lead to fair distribution or resources and risks (distributive justice). This literature review of 30 peer-reviewed papers provides an analysis of justice and FRM by assessing practices of participation which are presented in the recent literature on local stakeholder involvement in FRM in England, Germany and the Netherlands. It was found that participation in practice generally focuses on transferring responsibility to the local level at the expense of power. This paper discusses the implications that this finding has for justice and synthesises potential ways forward based on recommendations of the reviewed literature.     

Who’s in Charge: Role Clarity in a Midwestern Watershed Group

Studies of collaborative watershed groups show that effective leadership is an important factor for success. This research uses data from in-depth interviews and meeting observation to qualitatively examine leadership in a Midwestern collaborative watershed group operating with government funding. One major finding was a lack of role definition for volunteer steering-committee members. Lack of role clarity and decision-making processes led to confusion regarding project management authority among the group, paid project staff members, and agency personnel. Given the important role of government grants for funding projects to protect water quality, this study offers insight into leadership issues that groups with Clean Water Act Section 319 (h) funds may face and suggestions on how to resolve them.     

Sense and Influence: Environmental Monitoring Tools and the Power of Citizen Science

Automated monitoring devices are useful technologies for communities seeking to document and solve environmental problems. However, without deeper scrutiny of their design and deployment, there is a risk that they will fail to have the impact that many of their promoters intend. We develop a rubric for analysing how different kinds of monitoring devices help environmental advocates influence public debates. We apply this rubric in a study of environmental organizations in Pennsylvania that are choosing between recruiting volunteer citizen scientists and using automated sensor-based devices to gather water quality data in streams threatened by hydraulic fracturing for natural gas. Many organizations rely on volunteers using simple monitoring tools because they are affordable and produce easily managed data sets. An argument for this method of monitoring is that volunteering in the field also fosters citizen engagement in environmental debates. By comparison, we find the increased use of automated devices tends to reinforce hierarchies of expertise and constrains the agendas of nonprofessionals who participate in monitoring projects. We argue that these findings suggest that automated technologies, however effective they may be in gathering data on environmental quality, are not well designed to support broad public participation in environmental science and politics.     

Beyond the Requirements: Improving Public Participation in EIA

Virtually every environmental planner at some time deals with environmental impact assessment (EIA). Public participation is required in most environmental impact assessment programmesaround the world. However, citizen involvement is often reduced to a procedural exercise instead of a substantive process to include the public in environmental decision making. This paper examines public participation in EIA and provides ways to improve its effectiveness. We first examine the rationales for public involvement and its institutionalization through EIA. Next, we analyse the shortcomings and strengths of common approaches to public involvement. Our analysis, supported by two case studies, suggests that going beyond the minimum requirements can benefit the public, the project proponent and the final plan. We conclude with practical steps to improve public participation programmes in environmental planning and decision making.     

Will participation foster the successful implementation of the water framework directive? The case of agricultural groundwater protection in northwest Germany

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) calls for various modes of public. These participation and involvement. These are judged as key factors to support the successful implementation in terms of attaining a good water status. This paper aims to explore the role of the 'active involvement' of stakeholders for the effective implementation of the WFD regarding the specific problem of reducing agricultural nitrate pollution of groundwater. Our case of reference is the Hase river catchment in northwest Germany, which is a paradigmatic example of an intensive livestock farming region with high nitrate intakes in groundwater. Emphasis is placed on the various forms of involvement that have recently been or will soon be established in northwest Germany at different spatial and administrative scales. We argue that although the WFD refers to whole river basins as the central unit of governance, it is particularly the regional and local scales that will strongly influence the implementation process. We identify different influencing factors and scenario paths, demonstrating both the uncertainties at stake and the range of possible effects that different outcomes of participatory processes will have. These, in turn, are closely linked to the interests, perceptions and strengths of different actors. Identification of critical paths and decision points enables corridors to be mapped out regarding the anticipated success or failure of regional public participation to reduce diffuse agricultural groundwater pollution.     

Agency–Community Partnership in Landcare: Lessons for State-Sponsored Citizen Resource Management

/ With over 2500 Australian Landcare groups, 65,000 volunteer members, and considerable evidence of program impact, Landcare is an important example of state-sponsored rural development in a developed nation. The agency-community partnership is a fundamental element of Landcare and getting the partnership right is vital to long-term program success. After reviewing the emergence of Landcare in the state of Victoria, the author reports research from a 1995 survey of Victorian Landcare groups. Survey information highlighted the extent of agency-group contact, the important roles agency staff played in many Landcare groups, and the positive impact of agency contact and government funding upon group activity. Large majorities of groups reported they were satisfied with their relationship with agency staff. However, a majority of groups reported money or materials provided to manage land and water degradation was inadequate. Recently proposed changes to the Landcare program will provide government funding of work on private property and may address this concern. A majority of groups also reported support for leadership and management training was inadequate and respondents emphasized the need to revise program guidelines that limit funding for group coordinators. This information highlighted the importance of articulating a practical model of community participation in Australia and adopting a systematic approach to providing agency support for Landcare groups. Reflecting upon the Landcare experience, the author suggests some of the key elements of a practical model of state-sponsored citizen resource management contributing to rural development.KEY WORDS: Landcare; Australia; Community participation; Rural development; Citizen resource management; Sustainable agriculture     

Evaluating public participation in environmental decision-making: EPA's superfund community involvement program

This article discusses an 8-year, ongoing project that evaluates the Environmental Protection Agency's Superfund community involvement program. The project originated as a response to the Government Performance and Results Act, which requires federal agencies to articulate program goals, and evaluate and report their progress in meeting those goals. The evaluation project assesses how effective the Superfund community involvement program is in promoting public participation in decisions about how to clean up hazardous wastes at Superfund sites. We do three things in the article: (1) share our experience with evaluating an Agency public participation program, including lessons learned about methods of evaluation; (2) report evaluation results; and (3) address a number of issues pertaining to the evaluation of public participation in environmental decision-making. Our goal is to encourage more environmental managers to incorporate evaluation into their public participation programs as a tool for improving them. We found that written mail surveys were an effective and economical tool for obtaining feedback on EPA's community involvement program at Superfund sites. The evaluation focused on four criteria: citizen satisfaction with EPA information about the Superfund site, citizen understanding of environmental and human health risks associated with the site, citizen satisfaction with opportunities provided by EPA for community input, and citizen satisfaction with EPA's response to community input. While the evaluation results were mixed, in general, community members who were most informed about and involved in the cleanup process at Superfund sites generally were also the most satisfied with the community involvement process, and the job that EPA was doing cleaning up the site. We conclude that systematic evaluation provides meaningful and useful information that agencies can use to improve their public participation programs. However, there need to be institutionalized processes that ensure evaluation results are used to develop and implement strategies for improvement.     

Re-Establishing a Sustainable Wetland at Former Lake Karla,Greece, Using Ramsar Restoration Guidelines

Lake Karla, Greece, was almost completely drained in 1962 both to protect surrounding farmlands from flooding and to increase agricultural area. Loss of wetland functions and values resulted in environmental, social, and economic problems. A number of restoration plans were proposed to address these problems. The plan approved by the government in the early 1990s proposed construction of a 4200-ha reservoir solely to improve water storage and flood attenuation functions. However, the Ramsar Scientific and Technical Review Panel states that the primary goal of any restoration project is to create resilient and sustainable ecosystems, as measured on a human timescale, in order to improve the ecological character and enhance the socioeconomic role that the wetland plays in the watershed. This study utilizes Ramsar guidelines for sustainable restoration of Lake Karla. Eight additional restoration measures are proposed based on functional analysis of the wetland to enhance additional wetland functions and support multiple values for humans and nature.