Depth profiles of radiocarbon and carbon isotopic compositions of organic matter and CO2 in a forest soil

Depth profiles of the specific activities of (14)C and carbon isotopic compositions (Delta(14)C, delta(13)C) in soil organic matter and soil CO(2) in a Japanese larch forest were determined. For investigating the transport of CO(2) in soil, specific activities of (14)C, Delta(14)C and delta(13)C in the organic layer, and atmospheric CO(2) in the same forest area were also determined. The specific activity of (14)C and Delta(14)C in the soil organic matter decreased with the increase in depth of 0-60cm, while that of soil CO(2) did not vary greatly at a soil depth of 13-73cm and was more prevalent than that of atmospheric CO(2). Peaks of specific activities of (14)C appeared at the depth of 0-4cm and Delta(14)C values were positive in the depth range from 0 to 15cm. These results suggest that the present soil at a depth of 0-4cm had been produced from the mid-1950s up until 1963, and the bomb C had reached the depth of 15cm in the objective soil area. The delta(13)C in the soil organic matter increased at the depth of 0-55cm, while that of soil CO(2) collected on 8 November 2004 decreased rapidly at the depth of 0-13cm and only slightly at the depth of 53-73cm. By combining the Delta(14)C and delta(13)C of the respective components and using the Keeling plot approach it was made clear that the entering of atmospheric CO(2) showed a large contribution to soil CO(2) at the depth of 0-13cm and a negligible contribution at the depth of 53-73cm for soil air collected on 8 November 2004. Respiration of live roots was presumed to be the main source of soil CO(2) at the depth of 53-73cm on 8 November 2004.     

Evaluation of 14C abundance in soil respiration using acclerator mass spectrometry

To clarify the behavior of 14C in terrestrial ecosystems, 14C abundance in soil respiration was evaluated in an urban forest with a new method involving a closed chamber technique and 14C measurement by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS). Soil respiration had a higher Delta14C than the contemporary atmosphere. This indicates that a significant portion of soil respiration is derived from the decomposition of soil organic matter enriched in 14C by atmospheric nuclear weapons tests, with a notable time lag between atmospheric 14C addition and re-emission from soil. On the other hand, delta14C in soil respiration demonstrated that 14C abundance ratio itself in soil-respired CO2 is not always high compared with that in atmospheric CO2 because of the isotope fractionation during plant photosynthesis and microbial decomposition of soil organic matter. The Delta14C in soil respiration was slightly lower in August than in March, suggesting a relatively high contribution of plant root respiration and decomposition of newly accumulated and/or 14C-depleted soil organic matter to the total soil respiration in August.     

Conceptual approaches for the development of dynamic specific activity models of 14C transfer from surface water to humans

Carbon-14 is a particularly interesting radionuclide from the perspective of dose estimation. Many nuclear facilities, including power reactors, release 14C into the environment, and much of this is as 14CO2. This mixes readily with stable CO2, and hence enters the food chain as fundamental biomolecules. This isotopic mixing is often used as the basis for dose assessment models. The present model was developed for the situation of 14C releases to surface waters, where there are distinct changes in the water 14C activity concentrations throughout the year. Complete isotopic mixing (equilibrium) cannot be assumed. The model computes the specific activity (activity of 14C per mass of total C) in water, phytoplankton, fish, crops, meat, milk and air, following a typical irrigation-based food-chain scenario. For most of the biotic compartments, the specific activity is a function of the specific activity in the previous time step, the specific activity of the substrate media, and the C turnover rate in the tissue. The turnover rate is taken to include biochemical turnover, growth dilution and mortality, recognizing that it is turnover of C in the population, not a tissue or an individual, that is relevant. Attention is paid to the incorporation of 14C into the surface water biota and the loss of any remaining 14CO2 from the surface water-air interface under its own activity concentration gradient. For certain pathways, variants in the conceptual model are presented, in order to fully discuss the possibilities. As an example, a new model of the soil-to-plant specific activity relationship is proposed, where the degassing of both 14C and stable C from the soil is considered. Selection of parameter values to represent the turnover rates as modeled is important, and is dealt with in a companion paper.     

Carbon-14 transfer into rice plants from a continuous atmospheric source: observations and model predictions

Carbon-14 ((14)C) is one of the most important radionuclides from the perspective of dose estimation due to the nuclear fuel cycle. Ten years of monitoring data on (14)C in airborne emissions, in atmospheric CO(2) and in rice grain collected around the Tokai reprocessing plant (TRP) showed an insignificant radiological effect of the TRP-derived (14)C on the public, but suggested a minor contribution of the TRP-derived (14)C to atmospheric (14)C concentrations, and an influence on (14)C concentrations in rice grain at harvest. This paper also summarizes a modelling exercise (the so-called rice scenario of the IAEA's EMRAS program) in which (14)C concentrations in air and rice predicted with various models using information on (14)C discharge rates, meteorological conditions and so on were compared with observed concentrations. The modelling results showed that simple Gaussian plume models with different assumptions predict monthly averaged (14)C concentrations in air well, even for near-field receptors, and also that specific activity and dynamic models were equally good for the prediction of inter-annual changes in (14)C concentrations in rice grain. The scenario, however, offered little opportunity for comparing the predictive capabilities of these two types of models because the scenario involved a near-chronic release to the atmosphere. A scenario based on an episodic release and short-term, time-dependent observations is needed to establish the overall confidence in the predictions of environmental (14)C models.     

Parameterization of a dynamic specific activity model of 14C transfer from surface water-to-humans

Carbon-14 is a particularly interesting radionuclide from the perspective of dose estimation because it mixes readily with stable CO2, and hence enters the food-chain as fundamental biomolecules. A model was developed for the situation of 14C releases to surface waters, where there are distinct changes in the water 14C activity concentrations throughout the year. The model computes the specific activity in water, phytoplankton, fish, crops, meat, milk and air, following a typical irrigation-based food-chain scenario. This paper describes the derivation of the required 14C-specific parameter values. Many of the key parameters are not commonly measured, at least not in the context of dose assessment. Thus, inference from other sources of data was required, and this is the scientific contribution described in this paper. The best estimates and appropriate measures of statistical dispersion are provided. This required consideration of both the temporal and spatial averaging domains to ensure they were correct for parameters as defined in the model. The model coupled with these parameter values represents several new developments for modelling 14C transfers.     

Soil Respiration and Carbon Storage of an Acrisol Under Forest and different Cultivations in rio de Janeiro State, Brazil

Soil respiration rates of a clay-loam textured Acrisol under different uses (Atlantic forest, manioc, horticulture and pasture) from Rio de Janeiro State were measured. The relationship between carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions and soil physico-chemical properties were investigated. Rates of CO₂ emission of two sites (Atlantic forest and horticulture) were also evaluated in different seasons in 1997 and 1998. In the forest site, monthly means of measured respiration rates showed good correlation with soil temperature in the range 19.6–24.1°C (r² = 0.89). In the horticulture site, no change was observed with soil moisture alone, in the range 3.0–13.2 wt%. In the horticulture soil, even when the surface soil was very dry, respiration rates increased in the hot, wetter summer but remained higher than the mean flux from forest soil. The CO₂ emission flux of the Acrisol under different use showed good correlation with soil temperature (r² = 0.72) and moisture (r² = 0.61).     

Reconstructing the history of 14C discharges from Sellafield: part 1--atmospheric discharges

14C specific activities, above ambient background levels, were determined in individual treerings (corresponding to the years 1950-1999) sectioned from an oak tree that was felled in autumn 1999, from a location 1.5 km east of the Sellafield nuclear fuel reprocessing plant in Cumbria. north-west England. The data were used to produce a new, improved, reconstruction of Sellafield's annual atmospheric 14C discharges between 1951 and 1999, using the most reliable discharge data set (1994-1999) as the primary basis for the determination of a new calibration factor that relates excess 14C activity in individual tree rings to the annual discharge during the corresponding year. The results indicate that the current British Nuclear Fuels plc (BNFL) estimate of total 14C discharges to the atmosphere prior to 1978 is significantly overestimated, while the current estimate of total 14C discharges after 1978 is very similar to that determined in this study. In this study, the total activity of 14C discharged to the atmosphere from Sellafield between 1951 and 1999 is estimated to be 259+/-63 TBq (at 2 std. dev.). The BNFL current estimate is 360TBq.     

Predictive model for the (14)C radioactivity in a plant following an exposure to airborne (14)CO(2) gas

This paper provides details of a dynamic compartment model for estimating the (14)C radioactivity in an agricultural plant exposed to an amount of airborne (14)CO(2) gas. The plant, in the model, is divided into two compartments, the plant body (shoot and root) and ears, to predict the radioactivity of different parts of a plant. The carbon transports from, to and between the compartments are described by the processes of a photosynthesis, respiration, and translocation. The carbon transport fluxes of these processes are determined from the growth rates of a plant, which are usually easily attained. The model predictions showed that the present model could converge to a region where the specific activity model is applicable when the elapsed exposure time was extended up to the harvest time of a plant. The (14)C activity of a plant was greatly affected by the elapsed exposure time, the developmental stages of a plant at an exposure time, and the airborne (14)C activity during an exposure. It was expected that the peak of the ears' (14)C activity appeared when the exposure time was close to the ears-maturity date. The model predictions agreed reasonably well with the measured (14)C radioactivity of the rice plants that were artificially exposed to (14)CO(2) of a high (14)C source for a short period of time in an exposure box.     

Impacts of elevated atmospheric CO(2) on forest trees and forest ecosystems: knowledge gaps

Atmospheric CO(2) is rising rapidly, and options for slowing the CO(2) rise are politically charged as they largely require reductions in industrial CO(2) emissions for most developed countries. As forests cover some 43% of the Earth's surface, account for some 70% of terrestrial net primary production (NPP), and are being bartered for carbon mitigation, it is critically important that we continue to reduce the uncertainties about the impacts of elevated atmospheric CO(2) on forest tree growth, productivity, and forest ecosystem function. In this paper, I review knowledge gaps and research needs on the effects of elevated atmospheric CO(2) on forest above- and below-ground growth and productivity, carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling, water relations, wood quality, phenology, community dynamics and biodiversity, antioxidants and stress tolerance, interactions with air pollutants, heterotrophic interactions, and ecosystem functioning. Finally, I discuss research needs regarding modeling of the impacts of elevated atmospheric CO(2) on forests.Even though there has been a tremendous amount of research done with elevated CO(2) and forest trees, it remains difficult to predict future forest growth and productivity under elevated atmospheric CO(2). Likewise, it is not easy to predict how forest ecosystem processes will respond to enriched CO(2). The more we study the impacts of increasing CO(2), the more we realize that tree and forest responses are yet largely uncertain due to differences in responsiveness by species, genotype, and functional group, and the complex interactions of elevated atmospheric CO(2) with soil fertility, drought, pests, and co-occurring atmospheric pollutants such as nitrogen deposition and O(3). Furthermore, it is impossible to predict ecosystem-level responses based on short-term studies of young trees grown without interacting stresses and in small spaces without the element of competition. Long-term studies using free-air CO(2) enrichment (FACE) technologies or forest stands around natural CO(2) vents are needed to increase the knowledge base on forest ecosystem responses to elevated atmospheric CO(2). In addition, new experimental protocols need to continue to be developed that will allow for mature trees to be examined in natural ecosystems. These studies should be closely linked to modeling efforts so that the inference capacity from these expensive and long-term studies can be maximized.     

Surface ground contamination and soil vertical distribution of 137Cs around two underground nuclear explosion sites in the Asian Arctic, Russia

Vertical distributions of 137Cs have been determined in vegetation-soil cores obtained from 30 different locations around two underground nuclear explosion sites--"Crystal" (event year - 1974) and "Kraton-3" (event year - 1978) in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Russia. In 2001-2002, background levels of 137Cs surface contamination densities on control forest plots varied from 0.73 to 0.97 kBq m(-2) with an average of 0.84+/-0.10 kBq m(-2) and a median of 0.82 kBq m(-2). 137Cs ground contamination densities at the "Crystal" site ranged from 1.3 to 64 kBq m(-2); the activity gradually decreased with distance from the borehole. For "Kraton-3", residual surface contamination density of radiocaesium varied drastically from 1.7 to 6900 kBq m(-2); maximal 137Cs depositions were found at a "decontaminated" plot. At all forest plots, radiocaesium activity decreased throughout the whole vertical soil profile. Vertical distributions of 137Cs in soil for the majority of the plots sampled (n=18) can be described using a simple exponential function. Despite the fact that more than 20 years have passed since the main fallout events, more than 80% of the total deposited activity was found in the first 5 cm of the vegetation-soil cores from most of the forested landscapes. The low annual temperatures, clay-rich soil type with neutral pH, and presence of thick lichen-moss carpet are the factors which may hinder 137Cs transport down the soil profile.     

A follow up of the decrease of non exchangeable organically bound tritium levels in the surroundings of a nuclear research center

In the past decades limited amounts of tritium were handled on the CEA site of Bruyères le Châtel with authorised atmospheric releases. A small fraction of the tritium released entered into environmental samples under three forms: (i) as part of free water (TFWT - Tissue Free Water Tritium), or associated with organic matter in two ways; either (ii) bound to the oxygen and nitrogen atoms of the material as exchangeable organically bound tritium (E-OBT), or (iii) bound to carbon atoms as non exchangeable organically bound tritium (NE-OBT). The first two components provide only a picture of atmospheric tritium concentrations at the sampling time as they are in equilibrium with atmospheric moisture and soil humidity. Unlike these exchangeable forms, however, NE-OBT is tightly bound to the organic matter and provides an integrated record of atmospheric tritium during the growing phase of the vegetation. We mapped NE-OBT in tree leaf samples in an area of about 25 × 30 km² around the centre of the CEA site and compared the results with those obtained during a previous sampling exercise in 1989. At this time, the activity levels were almost ten times higher than those observed presently in a similar area almost 20 years later which is consistent with the decrease of atmospheric releases issued from the centre. As the activity levels are now close to environmental background specific attention was also paid to the analytical procedure to ensure reliable low level NE-OBT detection.     

Carbon-14 in tree rings and other terrestrial samples in the vicinity of Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant, Lithuania

The results of (14)C measurements in the annual tree rings from the Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant (INPP) surroundings, Lithuania, for the period of its operation from 1984 to 2002 are presented. The terrestrial samples, mainly moss and related soil, are studied in places as well. The tree rings have shown slightly enhanced (14)C activity due to operation of the nuclear power plant. The maximal calculated normalized (14)C release of 11TBqGW(e)(-1)year(-1) and the maximal effective dose of 2.0x10(-3)mSvyear(-1) resulting from the (14)C were estimated for 1999. For other years of INPP operation these values are lower. The excess of (14)C specific activity measured in the moss and soil samples from moss-covered sites near the nuclear power plant (up to 0.5km) showed highly elevated (14)C contents (up to 813pMC), probably indicating releases of particulate material.     

Radiocarbon and stable carbon isotope compositions of chemically fractionated soil organic matter in a temperate-zone forest

To better understand the role of soil organic matter in terrestrial carbon cycle, carbon isotope compositions in soil samples from a temperate-zone forest were measured for bulk, acid-insoluble and base-insoluble organic matter fractions separated by a chemical fractionation method. The measurements also made it possible to estimate indirectly radiocarbon ((14)C) abundances of acid- and base-soluble organic matter fractions, through a mass balance of carbon among the fractions. The depth profiles of (14)C abundances showed that (1) bomb-derived (14)C has penetrated the first 16cm mineral soil at least; (2) Delta(14)C values of acid-soluble organic matter fraction are considerably higher than those of other fractions; and (3) a significant amount of the bomb-derived (14)C has been preserved as the base-soluble organic matter around litter-mineral soil boundary. In contrast, no or little bomb-derived (14)C was observed for the base-insoluble fraction in all sampling depths, indicating that this recalcitrant fraction, accounting for approximately 15% of total carbon in this temperate-zone forest soil, plays a role as a long-term sink in the carbon cycle. These results suggest that bulk soil organic matter cannot provide a representative indicator as a source or a sink of carbon in soil, particularly on annual to decadal timescales.     

Ecosystem carbon budgeting and soil carbon sequestration in reclaimed mine soil

Global warming risks from emissions of green house gases (GHGs) by anthropogenic activities, and possible mitigation strategies of terrestrial carbon (C) sequestration have increased the need for the identification of ecosystems with high C sink capacity. Depleted soil organic C (SOC) pools of reclaimed mine soil (RMS) ecosystems can be restored through conversion to an appropriate land use and adoption of recommended management practices (RMPs). The objectives of this paper are to (1) synthesize available information on carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from coal mining and combustion activities, (2) understand mechanisms of SOC sequestration and its protection, (3) identify factors affecting C sequestration potential in RMSs, (4) review available methods for the estimation of ecosystem C budget (ECB), and (5) identify knowledge gaps to enhance C sink capacity of RMS ecosystems and prioritize research issues. The drastic perturbations of soil by mining activities can accentuate CO2 emission through mineralization, erosion, leaching, changes in soil moisture and temperature regimes, and reduction in biomass returned to the soil. The reclamation of drastically disturbed soils leads to improvement in soil quality and development of soil pedogenic processes accruing the benefit of SOC sequestration and additional income from trading SOC credits. The SOC sequestration potential in RMS depends on amount of biomass production and return to soil, and mechanisms of C protection. The rate of SOC sequestration ranges from 0.1 to 3.1 Mg ha(-1) yr(-1) and 0.7 to 4 Mg ha(-1) yr(-1) in grass and forest RMS ecosystem, respectively. Proper land restoration alone could off-set 16 Tg CO2 in the U.S. annually. However, the factors affecting C sequestration and protection in RMS leading to increase in microbial activity, nutrient availability, soil aggregation, C build up, and soil profile development must be better understood in order to formulate guidelines for development of an holistic approach to sustainable management of these ecosystems. The ECBs of RMS ecosystems are not well understood. An ecosystem method of evaluating ECB of RMS ecosystems is proposed.     

江汉平原稻田冠层CO2通量变化特征及其影响因素分析

二氧化碳（CO2）、甲烷（CH4）、氧化亚氮（N2O）被认为是最重要的温室气体,在气候变化中扮演着重要角色,实地测定稻田生态系统CO2通量是农业源温室气体监测与控制技术研究的基本内容。采用涡度相关法对江汉平原稻田生态系统进行了通量观测,并对水稻不同生长阶段冠层CO2通量、潜热、显热通量变化特征及其影响因素进行了分析。结果表明：水稻各生育期冠层CO2、潜热、显热通量日变化均表现出明显的单峰特征,但幅度不同,这与太阳总辐射的日变化及下垫面作物叶面积指数大小关系密切。稻田系统作物呼吸与土壤呼吸排放CO2,排放通量一方面与温度的变化有关,另一方面也受灌溉、作物生长状况的影响;稻田光合作用吸收同化大气CO2,吸收通量与作物群体叶面积指数大小、光合有效辐射强度有关。不同生长期冠层CO2通量与温度因子（气温、5cm土层温度）、光辐射强度因子（时光合有效辐射曝辐量）的相关性均达到极显著水平（P<0.01）,其中,分蘖-灌浆乳熟期CO2净通量对时光合有效辐射曝辐量响应的灵敏度较大,可以通过直角双曲线模型来拟合评估CO2净通量     

Forty years of atmospheric radiocarbon monitoring around Bohunice nuclear power plant, Slovakia

Radiocarbon variations in the atmospheric CO(2) with attenuating amplitudes and decreasing mean values with typical maxima in summer and minima in winter have been observed since 1967 in two localities of Slovakia, in Bratislava and Zlkovce, situated about 60 km NE from Bratislava, only 5 km from the Bohunice Nuclear Power Plant (NPP). The (14)C record in Bratislava has been influenced mainly by fossil CO(2) emissions, in contrast to the Zlkovce record which has been more variable, as it has clearly been affected by operation of the Bohunice NPP. However, during specific meteorological conditions with NE transport of air masses to Bratislava, the effect of the Bohunice NPP has been visible in Bratislava as well. Maximum (14)C concentrations (up to 120% above a natural background) were observed around A1 NPP which used CO(2) with admixture of air as a cooling agent. The (14)C concentrations around four pressurized light water reactors were up to 30% above the background. The Delta(14)C values in the heavily polluted atmosphere of Bratislava were up to 10% and at Zlkovce up to 5% lower than the European clean air represented by the Jungfraujoch Delta(14)C data. Later the Delta(14)C values were similar at both sites, and from 2003 they were close to the European clean air levels. The observed Delta(14)C behaviour in the atmosphere provides a unique evidence of decreased fossil fuel CO(2) emissions in the region, as well as the long-term effect of the Bohunice NPP on the Bratislava and Zlkovce stations. The estimated annual radiation doses to the local public due to digestion of radiocarbon contaminated food have been estimated to be around 3 microSv.     

14C content in vegetation in the vicinities of Brazilian nuclear power reactors

(14)C specific activities were measured in grass samples collected around Brazilian nuclear power reactors. The specific activity values varied between 227 and 299 Bq/kg C. Except for two samples which showed (14)C specific activities 22% above background values, half of the samples showed background specific activities, and the other half had a (14)C excess of 1-18%. The highest specific activities were found close to the nuclear power plants and along the main wind directions (NE and NNE). The activity values were found to decrease with increasing distance from the reactors. The unexpectedly high (14)C excess values found in two samples were related to the local topography, which favors (14)C accumulation and limits the dispersion of the plume. The results indicate a clear (14)C anthropogenic signal within 5 km around the nuclear power plants which is most prominent along northeastwards, the prevailing wind direction.     

Radon-222 exhalation from open ground on and around a uranium mine in the wet-dry tropics

Radon-222 exhalation from the ground surface depends upon a number of variables such as the 226Ra activity concentration and its distribution in soil grains; soil grain size; soil porosity, temperature and moisture; atmospheric pressure, rainfall and temperature. In this study, 222Rn exhalation flux density measurements within and around the Ranger uranium mine in northern Australia were performed to investigate the effect of these variables within a tropical region. Measurements were taken at the waste rock dumps, ore stockpiles, mine pits, and at sites where effluent water with elevated 226Ra concentration has been spray irrigated over land, as well as at sites outside the mine. The sites selected represented a variety of geomorphic regions ranging from uranium-bearing rocks to ambient soils. Generally, wet season rains reduced 222Rn exhalation but at a few sites the onset of rains caused a step rise in exhalation flux densities. The results show that parameters such as 226Ra activity concentration, soil grain size and soil porosity have a marked effect on 222Rn flux densities. For similar geomorphic sites, 226Ra activity concentration is a dominant factor, but soil grain size and porosity also influence 222Rn exhalation. Surfaces with vegetation showed higher exhalation flux densities than their barren counterparts, perhaps because the associated root structure increases soil porosity and moisture retention. Repeated measurements over one year at eight sites enabled an analysis of precipitation and soil moisture effects on 222Rn exhalation. Soil moisture depth profiles varied both between seasons and at different times during the wet season, indicating that factors such as duration, intensity and time between precipitation events can influence 222Rn flux densities considerably.     

Distribution of carbon 14 in the terrestrial environment close to French nuclear power plants

For 10 years, (14)C measurements have been performed around French nuclear power plant sites, both in zones influenced and zones not influenced by gaseous releases. Examining the results from these measurements in the terrestrial environment shows that the discharges have a very slight impact on the radiocarbon level (with a relative increase in the specific activity of the order of 3 Bqkg(-1)C in the influenced areas). In correlation, there is a near-negligible increase in dose, on average less than 0.1 microSvyr(-1), with reference to a dose from background radiation, which is of the order of 10 microSvyr(-1). The deltaC13 values are very similar between the influenced zone and the non-influenced zone, with a mean of -27 per thousand. The mean DeltaC14 varies from 101 per thousand in the non-influenced zone to 123 per thousand in the influenced zone. Moreover, a general reduction in (14)C concentration was found, with a time constant of the order of 95 years. The current level of (14)C specific activity in terrestrial environment is estimated to be 242+/-6 Bqkg(-1)C.     

High-resolution spatial analysis of stomatal ozone uptake in arable crops and pastures

Ozone effects on plants depend on atmospheric transport and stomatal uptake. Thus, ozone-risk assessments should use measured ozone concentrations and account for the influence of atmospheric conditions and soil moisture on stomatal and nonstomatal ozone deposition. This requires disaggregated data for the physical input parameters and species-specific data for specific stomatal conductance (g(s)). In this study, an approach was developed based on a resistance analogue transport model. This model requires interpolated routine-measuring data for ozone concentration at 3-5 m height, wind speed, precipitation, and soil moisture content as inputs to estimate the amount of ozone taken up by wheat (Triticum aestivum) and grass/clover pastures with a 1x1-km resolution. The model was applied to the area under agricultural production in Switzerland. Using data for June 1994, the calculations revealed that the median of the distribution of stomatal ozone uptake was 88% higher in wheat compared to grassland. This was mainly due to the higher maximum stomatal conductance in wheat. Because ozone flux to soil and to external plant surfaces was comparable in both vegetation types, the difference in the stomatal fluxes was mainly responsible for distinct differences in flux partitioning. In both cases, only about 11% of the total cumulative flux was absorbed by external plant surfaces, whereas the soil was a strong sink responsible for as much as 50% of the total flux into grasslands. The higher-ozone flux to wheat resulted in clearly lower-ozone concentrations at canopy height, but no significant correlation between cumulative canopy-level ozone exposure, expressed as accumulated exposure above 40 ppb (AOT40), and stomatal uptake was found. Thus, to estimate the ozone risk for crops using a flux-based approach may lead to results that differ substantially from those obtained with a concentration-based approach.