Management of immunization solid wastes in Kano State, Nigeria

Inadequate management of waste generated from injection activities can have a negative impact on the community and environment. In this paper, a report on immunization wastes management in Kano State (Nigeria) is presented. Eight local governments were selected randomly and surveyed by the author. Solid wastes generated during the Expanded Programme on Immunization were characterised using two different methods: one by weighing the waste and the other by estimating the volume. Empirical data was obtained on immunization waste generation, segregation, storage, collection, transportation, and disposal; and waste management practices were assessed. The study revealed that immunization offices were accommodated in either in local government buildings, primary health centres or community health care centres. All of the stations demonstrated a high priority for segregation of the infectious wastes. It can be deduced from the data obtained that infectious waste ranged from 67.6% to 76.7% with an average of 70.1% by weight, and 36.0% to 46.1% with an average of 40.1% by volume. Non-infectious waste generated ranged from 23.3% to 32.5% with an average of 29.9% by weight and 53.9% to 64.0% with an average of 59.9% by volume. Out of non-infectious waste (NIFW) and infectious waste (IFW), 66.3% and 62.4% by weight were combustible and 33.7% and 37.6% were non-combustible respectively. An assessment of the treatment revealed that open pit burning and burial and small scale incineration were the common methods of disposal for immunization waste, and some immunization centres employed the services of the state or local government owned solid waste disposal board for final collection and disposal of their immunization waste at government approved sites.     

Searching quality data for municipal solid waste planning

Effective waste reduction and recycling is predicated upon credible data on refuse generation and disposal. Despite improvements in the quality of data for municipal solid wastes (MSW) disposal, dependable generation and recycling statistics to support planning, regulation and administration are lacking. The available aggregates on national waste production from two sources do not conform to each other and fail to serve the requirements of local solid waste planning. As recycling estimates will be difficult to discern, the collection of generation data based on weighing waste samples at generator sites has been portrayed as the key for developing sustainable local databases. The coefficients developed from the databases for the various categories of residential, commercial, industrial and institutional wastes can be used as variables for waste generation models.     

Assessment of medical wastes management practice: a case study of the northern part of Jordan

This study includes a survey of the procedures available, techniques, and methods of handling and disposing of medical waste at medium (between 100 and 200 beds) to large (over 200 beds) size healthcare facilities located in Irbid city (a major city in the northern part of Jordan). A total of 14 healthcare facilities, including four hospitals and 10 clinical laboratories, serving a total population of about 1.5 million, were surveyed during the course of this research. This study took into consideration both the quantity and quality of the generated wastes to determine generation rates and physical properties. Results of the survey showed that healthcare facilities in Irbid city have less appropriate practices when it comes to the handling, storage, and disposal of wastes generated in comparison to the developed world. There are no defined methods for handling and disposal of these wastes, starting from the personnel responsible for collection through those who transport the wastes to the disposal site. Moreover, there are no specific regulations or guidelines for segregation or classification of these wastes. This means that wastes are mixed, for example, wastes coming from the kitchen with those generated by different departments. Also, more importantly, none of the sites surveyed could provide estimated quantities of waste generated by each department, based upon the known variables within the departments. Average generation rates of total medical wastes in the hospitals were estimated to be 6.10 kg/patient/day (3.49 kg/bed/day), 5.62 kg/patient/day (3.14 kg/bed/day), and 4.02 kg/patient/day (1.88 kg/bed/day) for public, maternity, and private hospitals, respectively. For medical laboratories, rates were found to be in the range of 0.053-0.065 kg/test-day for governmental laboratories, and 0.034-0.102 kg/test-day for private laboratories. Although, based on the type of waste, domestic or general waste makes up a large proportion of the waste volume, so that if such waste is not mixed with patient derived waste, it can be easily handled. However, based on infections, it is important for healthcare staff to take precautions in handling sharps and pathological wastes, which comprises only about 26% of the total infectious wastes. Statistical analysis was conducted to develop mathematical models to aid in the prediction of waste quantities generated by the hospitals studied, or similar sites in the city that are not included in this study. In these models, the number of patients, number of beds, and hospital type were determined to be significant factors on waste generation. Such models provide decision makers with tools to better manage their medical waste, given the dynamic conditions of their healthcare facilities.     

Co-disposal of hazardous and municipal wastes in landfills: Experimental work

During the past 15 years considerable research has taken place in the U.K. to investigate the decomposition processes occurring within municipal waste landfills. This, in turn, has led to a better understanding of the environmental fate of many industrial wastes currently, or formerly, co-disposed with municipal refuse. Codisposal is defined in this paper as the disposal of chemical wastes in an admixture with domestic waste so that full advantage is taken of the attenuation and biochemical processes operating within a landfill to reduce the environmental impact to an insignificant level. Central to this philosophy is the maintenance of a balanced input of different wastes to ensure that attenuation and degradation processes are not overwhelmed. It is contended that co-disposal is an effective disposal option for a wide range of industrial wastes at correctly sited and well managed landfills.Co-disposal research findings for three selected industrial waste types are presented and related to the scientific basis for the prohibition, or continuation of their disposal to landfills.     

Management of hazardous waste in Thailand: present situation and future prospects

 This paper deals with the present scenario of hazardous waste management practices in Thailand, and gives some insights into future prospects. Industrialization in Thailand has systematically increased the generation of hazardous waste. The total hazardous waste generated in 2001 was 1.65 million tons. It is estimated that over 300 million kg/year of hazardous waste is generated from nonindustrial, community sources (e.g., batteries, fluorescent lamps, cleansing chemicals, pesticides). No special facilities are available for handling these wastes. There are neither well-established systems for separation, storage, collection, and transportation, nor the effective enforcement of regulations related to hazardous wastes management generated from industrial or nonindustrial sectors. Therefore, because of a lack of treatment and disposal facilities, these wastes find their way into municipal wastewaters, public landfills, nearby dump sites, or waterways, raising serious environmental concern. Furthermore, Thailand does not have an integrated regulatory framework regarding the monitoring and management of hazardous materials and wastes. In addition to the absence of a national definition of hazardous wastes, limited funding has caused significant impediments to the effective management of hazardous waste. Thus, current waste management practices in Thailand present significant potential hazards to humans and the environment. The challenging issues of hazardous waste management in Thailand are not only related to a scarcity of financial resources (required for treatment and disposal facilities), but also to the fact that there has been no development of appropriate technology following the principles of waste minimization and sustainable development. A holistic approach to achieving effective hazardous waste management that integrates the efforts of all sectors, government, private, and community, is needed for the betterment of human health and the environment. Received: February 26, 2001 / Accepted: October 11, 2002     

Hospital solid waste management practices in Limpopo Province, South Africa: a case study of two hospitals

The shortcomings in the management practices of hospital solid waste in Limpopo Province of South Africa were studied by looking at two hospitals as case studies. Apart from field surveys, the generated hospital waste was weighed to compute the generation rates and was followed through various management practices to the final disposal. The findings revealed a major policy implementation gap between the national government and the hospitals. While modern practices such as landfill and incineration are used, their daily operations were not carried according to minimum standards. Incinerator ash is openly dumped and wastes are burned on landfills instead of being covered with soil. The incinerators used are also not environmentally friendly as they use old technology. The findings further revealed that there is no proper separation of wastes according to their classification as demanded by the national government. The mean percentage composition of the waste was found in the following decreasing order: general waste (60.74%)>medical waste (30.32%)>sharps (8.94%). The mean generation rates were found to be 0.60kg per patient per day.     

包装垃圾的分类与回收利用

包装垃圾是由废弃的包装物产生的固体垃圾,约占我国城市生活垃圾的1/3,虽然政府进行了必要回收,但仍有1/3以上的塑料、玻璃等包装物没能被有效回收利用,成了填埋场的主要填埋物,造成了环境污染和土地、石油等不可再生资源大量浪费。从回收利用和源头减量两方面提出包装垃圾的应对,一是对包装垃圾按来源、成分等进行详细分类,并建议回收处置方法;二是从制定行业政策方面来减少过度包装和扶持再生资源行业健康发展,有效处置包装垃圾等可再生资源。     

Assessment and analysis of industrial liquid waste and sludge disposal at unlined landfill sites in arid climate

Municipal solid waste disposal sites in arid countries such as Kuwait receive various types of waste materials like sewage sludge, chemical waste and other debris. Large amounts of leachate are expected to be generated due to the improper disposal of industrial wastewater, sewage sludge and chemical wastes with municipal solid waste at landfill sites even though the rainwater is scarce. Almost 95% of all solid waste generated in Kuwait during the last 10 years was dumped in five unlined landfills. The sites accepting liquid waste consist of old sand quarries that do not follow any specific engineering guidelines. With the current practice, contamination of the ground water table is possible due to the close location of the water table beneath the bottom of the waste disposal sites. This study determined the percentage of industrial liquid waste and sludge of the total waste dumped at the landfill sites, analyzed the chemical characteristics of liquid waste stream and contaminated water at disposal sites, and finally evaluated the possible risk posed by the continuous dumping of such wastes at the unlined landfills. Statistical analysis has been performed on the disposal and characterization of industrial wastewater and sludge at five active landfill sites. The chemical analysis shows that all the industrial wastes and sludge have high concentrations of COD, suspended solids, and heavy metals. Results show that from 1993 to 2000, 5.14+/-1.13 million t of total wastes were disposed per year in all active landfill sites in Kuwait. The share of industrial liquid and sludge waste was 1.85+/-0.19 million t representing 37.22+/-6.85% of total waste disposed in all landfill sites. Such wastes contribute to landfill leachate which pollutes groundwater and may enter the food chain causing adverse health effects. Lined evaporation ponds are suggested as an economical and safe solution for industrial wastewater and sludge disposal in the arid climate of Kuwait.     

Effect of an acidic and readily-biodegradable non-hazardous industrial process waste on refuse decomposition

Non-hazardous industrial process wastes are receiving increased interest from landfill owners, especially with respect to bioreactor operation. These wastes could benefit bioreactors as they represent sources of liquid, nutrients, and/or substrate as well as revenue. However, landfill operators should exercise caution in accepting these wastes, as some could have detrimental effects on refuse decomposition. In this research, the use of laboratory-scale tests to evaluate the effect of one such waste on refuse decomposition is demonstrated. The waste evaluated, referred to as burnt sugar, is an acidic byproduct of corn-based polylactic acid production and represents a source of readily-biodegradable carbon. Lactic acid was the primary constituent of the BS at 0.73 g/g and the COD was measured at 1230 mg COD/g. Testing protocols were adapted to address the specific concerns surrounding the material. Abiotic dissolution tests conducted at mesophilic temperatures indicated that the majority of the waste dissolved into leachate recirculated over a layer of the waste within several days. Abiotic mixing tests suggested that the waste would acidify refuse to pH 6.41 at a loading of 21.9 g/dry kg refuse. However, in biologically active tests, the refuse was able to convert loadings as high as 196.7 g/dry kg refuse to methane. As the loadings increased toward and beyond this level, pronounced detrimental effects to the refuse ecosystem were observed, including a decrease in pH, accumulation of volatile fatty acids and COD, and lag in methane production. The results suggested that actively decomposing refuse has the potential to attenuate relatively high loading of a rapidly degradable but acidic substrate. Nonetheless, caution in the implementation of a field program to accept rapidly biodegradable acidic wastes is critical.     

Medical waste management in Ibadan, Nigeria: obstacles and prospects

Quantification and characterization of medical waste generated in healthcare facilities (HCFs) in a developing African nation has been conducted to provide insights into existing waste collection and disposal approaches, so as to provide sustainable avenues for institutional policy improvement. The study, in Ibadan city, Nigeria, entailed a representative classification of nearly 400 healthcare facilities, from 11 local government areas (LGA) of Ibadan, into tertiary, secondary, primary, and diagnostic HCFs, of which, 52 HCFs were strategically selected. Primary data sources included field measurements, waste sampling and analysis and a questionnaire, while secondary information sources included public and private records from hospitals and government ministries. Results indicate secondary HCFs generate the greatest amounts of medical waste (mean of 10,238 kg/day per facility) followed by tertiary, primary and diagnostic HCFs, respectively. Characterised waste revealed that only approximately 3% was deemed infectious and highlights opportunities for composting, reuse and recycling. Furthermore, the management practices in most facilities expose patients, staff, waste handlers and the populace to unnecessary health risks. This study proffers recommendations to include (i) a need for sustained cooperation among all key actors (government, hospitals and waste managers) in implementing a safe and reliable medical waste management strategy, not only in legislation and policy formation but also particularly in its monitoring and enforcement and (ii) an obligation for each HCF to ensure a safe and hygienic system of medical waste handling, segregation, collection, storage, transportation, treatment and disposal, with minimal risk to handlers, public health and the environment.     

Report: future industrial solid waste management in pars Special Economic Energy Zone (PSEEZ), Iran.

The Pars Special Economic Energy Zone (PSEEZ) is located in the south of Iran, on the northern coastline of the Persian Gulf. This area was established in 1998 for the utilization of south Pars field oil and gas resources. This field is one of the largest gas resources in the world and contains about 6% of the total fossil fuels known. Petrochemical industries, gas refineries and downstream industries are being constructed in this area. At present there are three gas refineries in operation and five more gas refineries are under construction. In this study, different types of solid waste including municipal solid waste (MSW) and industrial wastes were investigated separately. The aim of the study was to focus on the management of the industrial wastes in order to minimize the environmental impact. In the first stage, the types and amounts of industrial waste in PSEEZ were evaluated by an inventory. The main types of industrial waste are oil products (fuel oil, light oil, lubricating oil), spent catalysts, adsorbents, resins, coke, wax and packaging materials. The waste management of PSEEZ is quite complex because of the different types of industry and the diversity of industrial residues. In some cases recycling/reuse of waste is the best option, but treatment and disposal are also necessary tools. Recently a design has been prepared for a disposal site in PSEEZ for the industrial waste that cannot be reused or recycled. The total surface area of this disposal site where the industrial waste should be tipped for the next 20 years was estimated to be about 42 000 m2.     

Municipal solid waste management challenges in developing countries--Kenyan case study

This paper provides an overview of the state of municipal solid waste management (MSWM) by local authorities in Kenya as a case study of a low-income developing country. Approaches of possible solutions that can be undertaken to improve municipal solid waste (MSW) services are discussed. Poor economic growth (1.1% in 1993) has resulted in an increase in the poverty level which presently stands at 56%. Migration from the rural areas to the urban areas has resulted in unplanned settlements in suburban areas accommodating about 60% of the urban population on only 5% urban land area. Political interference also hampers smooth running of local authorities. Vulnerability of pollution of surface and groundwater is high because local authorities rarely considered environmental impact in siting MSW disposal sites. Illegal dumping of MSW on the river banks or on the roadside poses environmental and economic threats on nearby properties. Poor servicing of MSW collection vehicles, poor state of infrastructure and the lack of adequate funding militate against optimization of MSW disposal service. The rural economy needs to be improved if rural-urban migration is to be managed. Involvement of stakeholders is important to achieve any meaningful and sustainable MSWM. The role of the informal sector through community-based organizations (CBOs), Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and the private sector in offering solutions towards improvement of MSWM also is explored.     

Solid waste management in Macao: practices and challenges

The rapid economic development and population growth in Macao have resulted in a large increase in refuse generated over the past decade. In 2003, the quantity of solid waste generated reached 249,255 tons, corresponding to 1.52 kg/day per capita. This figure has been gradually increasing. Domestic solid waste is the primary source of solid waste generation. The data showed that a considerable amount of the solid waste generated can be recycled and reutilized. Due to Macao's small geographic area and high cost of land, landfilling has the lowest priority for waste disposal. Solid waste incineration has been given a top priority over other waste disposal methods although it is much more expensive. In the last decade, more than 80% of the total waste in Macao was incinerated. However, the incineration capacity of the Macao Incineration Plant is going to reach its saturation earlier than expected. Waste minimization, the establishment of an effective waste collection and disposal fee system, and alternate ways dealing with the limited capacity of waste treatment facilities are regarded to be major challenges in the future.     

Land disposal of mixed human and animal wastes: A review

Combining septic tank effluent and animal wastes (mixed wastes) for eventual application to land is being proposed as an alternative wastewater disposal system. Both types of waste are spread on land separately, and private practice may be to mix and spread them together, but in most of the United States mixing of these wastes for land disposal is illegal. No research has been done to assess the hazards associated with spreading mixed wastes on land. The concern is with the impact on public health of adding septic tank effluent to animal wastes for disposal as animal wastes. The effects of pathogens already present in animal waste are presumably allowed for in current U.S. regulations.Pathogens in mixed wastes include viruses, bacteria and parasites. Viruses are not always present in on-site waste disposal systems, but when present are in high numbers. Most viral particles will pass through the septic tank and will remain viable. Transmission will be prevented if these particles are retained in soil or other solids until any of several factors deprive them of infectivity. As animals are the chief reservoir of most enteric bacteria that are pathogenic to man, no additional hazards from bacteria are expected in a mixed waste system. Some parasite eggs and cysts will settle into the bottom of the septic tank, but significant numbers will pass through and will remain viable. Retention with solids will minimize transmission through food and water. In all instances it is important to match land use and waste disposal carefully.     

Household waste disposal in Mekelle city, Northern Ethiopia

In many cities of developing countries, such as Mekelle (Ethiopia), waste management is poor and solid wastes are dumped along roadsides and into open areas, endangering health and attracting vermin. The effects of demographic factors, economic and social status, waste and environmental attributes on household solid waste disposal are investigated using data from household survey. Household level data are then analyzed using multinomial logit estimation to determine the factors that affect household waste disposal decision making. Results show that demographic features such as age, education and household size have an insignificant impact over the choice of alternative waste disposal means, whereas the supply of waste facilities significantly affects waste disposal choice. Inadequate supply of waste containers and longer distance to these containers increase the probability of waste dumping in open areas and roadsides relative to the use of communal containers. Higher household income decreases the probability of using open areas and roadsides as waste destinations relative to communal containers. Measures to make the process of waste disposal less costly and ensuring well functioning institutional waste management would improve proper waste disposal.     

A Comparative Overview Of Recycling In London And Hamburg

The level of recycling for household waste is significantly higher in Hamburg than in London, yet the extent of materials recovery in both cities is well below technically achievable levels. This paper shows that the higher level of recycling in Hamburg can be accounted for by three main factors: a higher density of recycling facilities combined with the use of more sophisticated collection systems such as a dual-bin service for putrescible wastes; a unified administrative structure for waste management under direct control of an elected regional government; and finally, a system of proportional representation in local government allowing environmentalist political demands to be directly translated into public policy. Despite these differences however, both cities face difficulties with the expansion of recycling derived from the weakness of the secondary materials market, the lack of legislative control over the size and composition of the waste stream, the fiscal constraints on local government and the expense of comprehensive recycling programmes in comparison with alternative forms of waste disposal. This paper concludes that the high cost of recycling presents a fundamental political dilemma for sustainable waste management policy in developed economies.     

Medical waste production at hospitals and associated factors

This study was conducted to evaluate the quantities of medical waste generated and the factors associated with the generation rate at medical establishments in Taiwan. Data on medical waste generation at 150 health care establishments were collected for analysis in 2003. General medical waste and infectious waste production at these establishments were examined statistically with the potential associated factors. These factors included the types of hospital and clinic, reimbursement payment by National Health Insurance, total number of beds, bed occupancy, number of infectious disease beds and outpatients per day. The average waste generation rates ranged from 2.41 to 3.26kg/bed/day for general medical wastes, and 0.19-0.88kg/bed/day for infectious wastes. The total average quantity of infectious wastes generated was the highest from medical centers, or 3.8 times higher than that from regional hospitals (267.8 vs. 70.3Tons/yr). The multivariate regression analysis was able to explain 92% of infectious wastes and 64% of general medical wastes, with the amount of insurance reimbursement and number of beds as significant prediction factors. This study suggests that large hospitals are the major source of medical waste in Taiwan. The fractions of medical waste treated as infectious at all levels of healthcare establishments are much greater than that recommended by the USCDC guidelines.     

Hospital waste management and toxicity evaluation: a case study

Hospital waste management is an imperative environmental and public safety issue, due to the waste's infectious and hazardous character. This paper examines the existing waste strategy of a typical hospital in Greece with a bed capacity of 400-600. The segregation, collection, packaging, storage, transportation and disposal of waste were monitored and the observed problematic areas documented. The concentrations of BOD, COD and heavy metals were measured in the wastewater the hospital generated. The wastewater's toxicity was also investigated. During the study, omissions and negligence were observed at every stage of the waste management system, particularly with regard to the treatment of infectious waste. Inappropriate collection and transportation procedures for infectious waste, which jeopardized the safety of staff and patients, were recorded. However, inappropriate segregation practices were the dominant problem, which led to increased quantities of generated infectious waste and hence higher costs for their disposal. Infectious waste production was estimated using two different methods: one by weighing the incinerated waste (880 kg day(-1)) and the other by estimating the number of waste bags produced each day (650 kg day(-1)). Furthermore, measurements of the EC(50) parameter in wastewater samples revealed an increased toxicity in all samples. In addition, hazardous organic compounds were detected in wastewater samples using a gas chromatograph/mass spectrograph. Proposals recommending the application of a comprehensive hospital waste management system are presented that will ensure that any potential risks hospital wastes pose to public health and to the environment are minimized.     

Solid waste management techniques for the waste generated and brought down from campsites in the hill spots, trails and expedition tops.

The increasing self-generated solid waste from the visitors in the hill towns, trails and expedition tops is one of the most adverse forms of human impacts in mountain environments. The direct managing authorities, such as municipalities in the hill spots, have no proper places to dispose of municipal waste nor the other infrastructure required nor adequate funds. The trekking and expedition areas are entirely dependent on the moral responsibilities of the local people, as well as visitors, because these locations are in remote areas, outside municipal boundaries. Based on five major case studies representing the Himalayas, the status of solid waste generation, its physical composition and management options in tourist [Kullu: 1,219 metres above average sea level (m), Rewalsar: 1,300 m, Manali: 2,050 m], trekking (in and around the Valley of Flowers: 1,830-4,330 m) and expedition areas (Pindari valley: 2,300-5,500 m) were studied. The inflow of visitors ranged from 150,000 to 1,140,251 in the hill spots, and from 25,000 to 116,392 in the expedition and trekking areas, respectively. The capita = t day 1 waste generation varied from 200-300 g in hill spots and from 200-288 g in expedition and trekking areas, respectively. Biodegradable waste varied from 65.2 to 83.1% of the total waste generated and was of greater quantity than non-biodegradable waste in expedition areas. Non-biodegradable waste was the predominant form in the expedition (66.4%) and trekking areas (84.5%). The ultimate aim of the study is to make the concerned local people, visitors and government aware of the need to harness energy from waste. This can be done in various ways including biocomposting, and the reuse and recycling of waste otherwise considered valueless and useless.     

Solid industrial wastes and their management in Asegra (Granada, Spain)

ASEGRA is an industrial area in Granada (Spain) with important waste management problems. In order to properly manage and control waste production in industry, one must know the quantity, type, and composition of industrial wastes, as well as the management practices of the companies involved. In our study, questionnaires were used to collect data regarding methods of waste management used in 170 of the 230 businesses in the area of study. The majority of these companies in ASEGRA are small or medium-size, and belong to the service sector, transport, and distribution. This was naturally a conditioning factor in both the type and management of the wastes generated. It was observed that paper and cardboard, plastic, wood, and metals were the most common types of waste, mainly generated from packaging (49% of the total volume), as well as material used in containers and for wrapping products. Serious problems were observed in the management of these wastes. In most cases they were disposed of by dumping, and very rarely did businesses resort to reuse, recycling or valorization. Smaller companies encountered greater difficulties when it came to effective waste management. The most frequent solution for the disposal of wastes in the area was dumping.