REGIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TOTAL DISSOLVED MINERALS IN STREAM WATERS OF ILLINOIS1

ABSTRACT Using water analyses from 67 gaging stations, discharge-frequency-weighted mean concentrations (QFC) and average annual yield (AAY) per unit area were determined for the total dissolved mineral content of Illinois streams. The resultant data indicates that total dissolved mineral contents are controlled by regional rather than local factors. In most cases plausible explanation for the magnitudes can be found in regional patterns of natural and demographic conditions. Although the data suggest that total dissolved minerals are increasing, the relative contributions of natural versus anthropogenic phenomena are difficult to delimit at this level of investigation.     

ORGANOCHLORINE PESTICIDE RESIDUES IN BED SEDIMENTS OF THE SAN JOAQUIN RIVER,CALIFORNIA1

ABSTRACT: Bed sediments of the San Joaquin River and its tributaries were sampled during October 7–11, 1985, and analyzed for organochiorine pesticide residues in order to determine their areal distribution and to evaluate and prioritize needs for further study. Residues of DDD, DDE, DDT, and dieldrin are widespread in the fine-grained bed sediments of the San Joaquin River and its tributaries despite little or no use of these pesticides for more than 15 years. The San Joaquin River has among the highest bed-sediment concentrations of DDD, DDE, DDT, and dieldrin residues of major rivers in the United States. Concentrations of all four pesticides were correlated with each other and with the amount of organic carbon and fine-grained particles in the bed sediments. The highest concentrations occurred in bed sediments of westside tributary streams. Potential tributary loads of DDD, DDE, DDT, and dieldrin to the San Joaquin River were computed from bed-sediment concentrations and data on streamfiow and suspended-sediment concentration in order to identify the general magnitude of differences between streams and to determine study priorities. The estimated loads indicate that the most important sources of residues during the study period were Salt Slough because of a high load of fine sediment, and Newman Wasteway, Orestimba Creek, and Hospital Creek because of high bed-sediment concentrations. Generally, the highest estimated loads of DDD, DDE, DDT, and dieldrin were in Orestimba and Hospital Creeks.     

HERBICIDES AND TRANSFORMATION PRODUCTS IN SURFACE WATERS OF THE MIDWESTERN UNITED STATES1

ABSTRACT: Most herbicides applied to crops are adsorbed by plants or transformed (degraded) in the soil, but small fractions are lost from fields and either move to streams in overland runoff, near surface flow, or subsurface drains, or they infiltrate slowly to ground water. Herbicide transformation products (TPs) can be more or less mobile and more or less toxic in the environment than their source herbicides. To obtain information on the concentrations of selected herbicides and TPs in surface waters of the Midwestern United States, 151 water samples were collected from 71 streams and five reservoir outflows in 1998. These samples were analyzed for 13 herbicides and 10 herbicide TPs. Herbicide TPs were found to occur as frequently or more frequently than source herbicides and at concentrations that were often larger than their source herbicides. Most samples contained a mixture of more than 10 different herbicides or TPs. The ratios of TPs to herbicide concentrations can be used to determine the source of herbicides in streams. Results of a two‐component mixing model suggest that on average 90 percent or more of the herbicide mass in Midwestern streams during early summer runoff events originates from the runoff and 10 percent or less comes from increased ground water discharge.     

EVALUATION OF SELECTED PESTICIDES IN NORTH CAROLINA SURFACE WATER SUPPLIES: INTAKE STUDY1

ABSTRACT: Studies were conducted to analyze the presence of 11 selected pesticides in 12 surface water supply intakes in the Piedmont and coastal plain regions of North Carolina. Samples were assayed using enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). Samples with pesticide detection of 1 μg/L or greater were extracted and confirmed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Detection limits of the immunosorbent assays for pesticide residues were generally an order of magnitude higher than GC/MS. Atrazine was detected in approximately 45 percent of the samples, and on two occasions was at or above the lifetime Maximum Contaminant Level of 3.0 μg/L set by the Environmental Protection Agency for an annual average in finished drinking water. Metolachlor was detected in 58 percent of the samples. Of the remaining nine pesticides, including carbaryl, aldicarb, 2,4‐D, chiorpyrifos, acetochlor, methomyl, carbofuran, alachlor, and chlorothalonil, only aldicarb, 2,4‐D, and chlorpyrifos were detected in less than 9 percent of the samples for each pesticide.     

CHANGES IN STRATIFICATION IN ONONDAGA LAJKE,NEW YORK1

ABSTRACT: The calibration of a mixed-layer stratification model to the complex stratification region of Onondaga Lake is documented. The short- and long-term impacts of the closure of an adjoining alkali plant on the stratification regime of Onondaga Lake are evaluated with this model from the perspective of natural variations associated with meteorological variability. Chemical stratification prevailed in the lake during the operation of the facility as a result of its discharge of ionic waste. A predicted likely short-term impact of the closure, that was subsequently observed, was the failure of the lake to turn over in the spring immediately following the closure. Spring turnover did not occur regularly during the operation of the facility; but turnover can be expected to occur regularly in the future. Other projected changes in average stratification conditions include: 1) a 45% shorter period of stratification, 2) a 3m deeper upper mixed layer, and 3) a 30% lower maximum density gradient. Substantial variability in the stratification is predicted as a result of meteorological variability, indicating that comparison of characteristics for individual years during and after the operation of the facility could be misleading. The changes in the stratification regime are expected to affect water quality. In particular, certain features of the oxygen resources of the hypolimnioa are expected to improve (e.g., delayed onset of anoxia).     

NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS IN SURFACE WATERS OF THE UPPER COLORADO RWER BASIN1

ABSTRACT: As part of a basinwide water-quality study, nitrogen and phosphorus data for the Upper Colorado River Basin from the Colorado-Utah State line to the Continental Divide were analyzed for spatial distributions, concentrations associated with various land uses, and temporal trends. Nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations generally increased in a downstream direction. Some nutrient concentrations were elevated at some sites in the upper parts of the basin in areas influenced by increasing urbanization. Sites were grouped according to land use and site type, and median nutrient concentrations were compared among groups. Sites within the agricultural areas of the basin generally had the highest concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus; concentrations for main-stem, tributary, and urbanization sites were slightly lower than for the agricultural sites. Background sites, or sites with minimal land-use impacts, had very low median nutrient concentrations. Several sites with long-term data were analyzed for temporal trends in concentrations. Several statistically significant downward trends of low and moderate magnitude were observed for nitrogen and phosphorus species. No upward trends were observed in the data at any site.     

VARIATION IN ADIRONDACK,NEW YORK,LAKEWATER CHEMISTRY AS FUNCTION OF SURFACE AREA1

ABSTRACT: Data from a recent survey conducted by the Adirondack Lake Survey Corporation were used to evaluate the influence of lake surface area on the acid-base status of lakes in Adirondack State Park, New York. Acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) in the small lakes (< 4 ha) occurred more frequently at extreme values (> 200, < 0 μeq L^?1), whereas larger lakes tended to be intermediate in ANC. Consequently, acidic (ANC ≤ 0) and low-pH lakes were typically small. The small lakes also exhibited lower Ca²⁺ concentration and higher dissolved organic carbon than did larger lakes. Lakes ≥ 4 ha were only half as likely to be acidic as were lakes ≥ 1 ha in area. These data illustrate the dependence of lake chemistry on lake surface area and the importance of the lower lake area limit for a statistical survey of lake water chemistry.     

TOXIC METALS IN SURFACE WATERS FROM COAL ASH1

ABSTRACT: The concentration of 10 [titanium (Ti), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), chromium (CR), zinc (Zn), arsenic (As), selenium (Se), cobalt (Co), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg)] toxic elements were measured in the water, benthic sediment, plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates of an ash basin and its drainage system at a coal-fired power plant of the Savannah River Project, Aiken, S.C., over a period of two years. During 12 months of this period the basin was essentially filled and little settling of ash occurred. In the remaining 12 months, dredging had been completed, adequate settling occurred and most of the effluent turbidity was removed. All elements were more concentrated in sediment and biota than in water, and five (Mn, Cu, As, Zn, and Se) were biomagnified by at least one biotic component as compared to concentration in benthic sediment. Plants had high accumulations of Ti, Mn, As, and Hg; invertebrates had high accumulations of Co, Hg, Cu, Cr, Cd, and As; and vertebrates greatly biomagnified Se and Zn. The streamlined biotic community of the system accomplished major removal of Mn, Zn, As, Se, and Cd from the effluent. The magnitude of bioaccumulation of Ti, Mn, Zn, As, Se, Cd, and Hg was increased during the period of adequate settling in the basin.     

THE POTENTIAL FOR REMOTE SENSING OF LOESS SOILS SUSPENDED IN SURFACE WATERS1

ABSTRACT: The potential for detecting the concentration and type of soils suspended in surface water through remote sensing techniques was investigated by studying the spectral reflectance of two types of soils in suspension. In a large tank filled with 7510 liters of water, 20 levels of suspended sediment (soil) concentration (SSC), ranging from 50 to 1000 mg/l were prepared. A high resolution spectroradiometer was used to measure the reflectance at each SSC level. The reflectance spectra of two contrasting soils were distinct in the visible and near infrared (NIR) portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The wavelength range between 580–690 nm (visible) was found to be optimal for indicating the type of soil, whereas, the wavelength range between 714–880 (NIR) was found to be appropriate for estimating the concentration of sediment suspended in surface waters.     

ELISA AND GC/MS ANALYSIS OF PESTICIDE RESIDUES IN NORTH CAROLINA1

ABSTRACT: Studies were conducted to analyze the presence of 11 pesticide residues in 12 surface waters in the Piedmont and coastal plain regions of North Carolina. Samples were assayed using enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). All ELISA results of one part per billion (ppb, μg/L) or greater were confirmed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GCIMS). ELISA detection limits were approximately an order of magnitude higher than GCJMS methods. Of the 5,035 analytical results from 742 surface water samples, atrazine was detected in approximately 45 percent of the samples, five of which were at or above the Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) of 3‐ppb. Metolachlor was detected in 64 percent of the samples. Aldicarb, 2,4‐D, chlorpyrifos, and chlorothalonil were also detected, and each was found in less than 12 percent of the samples. The remaining pesticides, including carbaryl, acetochior, methomyl, carbofuran, and alachlor, were not detected during the study period.     

ATRAZINE AND METOLACHLOR OCCURRENCE IN SHALLOW GROUND WATER OF THE UNITED STATES, 1993 TO 1995: RELATIONS TO EXPLANATORY FACTORS1

ABSTRACT: Since 1991, the U.S. Geological Survey has been conducting the National Water Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program to determine the quality of the Nation's water resources. In an effort to obtain a better understanding of why pesticides are found in shallow ground water on a national scale, a set of factors likely to affect the fate and transport of two herbicides in the subsurface were examined. Atrazine and metolachlor were selected for this discussion because they were among the most frequently detected pesticides in ground water during the first phase of the NAWQA Program (1993 to 1995), and each was the most frequently detected compound in its chemical class (triazines and acetanilides, respectively). The factors that most strongly correlated with the frequencies of atrazine detection in shallow ground‐water networks were those that provided either: (1) an indication of the potential susceptibility of ground water to atrazine contamination, or (2) an indication of relative ground‐water age. The factors most closely related to the frequencies of metolachlor detection in ground water, however, were those that estimated or indicated the intensity of the agricultural use of metolachlor. This difference is probably the result of detailed use estimates for these compounds being available only for agricultural settings. While atrazine use is relatively extensive in nonagricultural settings, in addition to its widespread agricultural use, metolachlor is used almost exclusively for agricultural purposes. As a result, estimates of agricultural applications provide a less reliable indication of total chemical use for atrazine than for metolachlor. A multivariate analysis demonstrated that the factors of interest explained about 50 percent of the variance in atrazine and metolachlor detection frequencies among the NAWQA land‐use studies examined. The inclusion of other factors related to pesticide fate and transport in ground water, or improvements in the quality and accuracy of the data employed for the factors examined, may help explain more of the remaining variance in the frequencies of atrazine and metolachlor detection.     

IMPACT OF COAL SURFACE MINING AND RECLAMATION ON SURFACE WATER CHEMICAL CONCENTRATIONS AND LOAD RATES IN THREE OHIO WATERSHEDS1

ABSTRACT: Information is lacking on the watershed scale effects of mining and reclaiming originally undisturbed watersheds for coal on surface water chemical concentrations and load rates for a variety of constituents. These effects were evaluated on three small, geologically dissimilar watersheds subjected to surface mining in Ohio. Comparisons were made between phases of land disturbances using ratios of average concentrations and load rates: Phase 1 (natural), subphases of Phase 2 (mining and reclamation), and subphases of Phase 3 (partial reclamation and final condition) using 4,485 laboratory analyses of 34 constituents. Average concentration and load rate ratios were categorized into three classes—minor, moderate, and substantial. Mining and reclamation (M/R) affected flow duration curves in different ways‐baseflow changes were variable, but high flows generally increased. The average concentration ratios for all sites were classified as 15 percent “minor,” 36 percent “moderate,” and 49 percent “substantial” (average ratio of 2.4.) Generally load rate ratios increased due to mining and reclamation activities (average ratio of 3.3). Minor, moderate, and substantial impacts were found on average for 7 percent, 23 percent, and 70 percent, respectively, of load rate ratios. The impact of M/R on average load rates was not necessarily the same as on average concentrations due to changed hydrology and can be opposite in effect. The evaluation of the impacts of M/R requires knowledge of changing hydrologic conditions and changing supplies and rates of release of chemicals into streams. Median sediment concentration ratio is an indicator of average constituent load rate ratio of a wide variety of chemical constituents and is useful for development of best management practices to reduce chemical loads. The site at which diversion ditches were not removed during final reclamation sustained large chemical load rates, and removal of diversions at the other mined site reduced load rates. Revegetation of poorly reclaimed areas decreased chemical load rates. Chemical load rates were sensitive to geology, mining, and reclamation methods, diversions, and changing hydrology, concentration flow rate regressions, and watershed areas.     

NITRATE CONCENTRATIONS IN ILLINOIS RIVERS 1967 TO 1974: COMPARISON AMONG REPORTING AGENCIES1

ABSTRACT: Long term data on surface water quality can sometimes be assembled by combining data collected by different agencies at different times and assuming that between agency differences in data quality are insignificant. The objective of this paper was to assess the quality of riverine nitrate (NO₃) concentrations in Illinois measured and reported by four agencies from 1967 to 1974 by comparing median values for similar sampling locations and periods. A total of 17 river reaches were identified for which two agencies reported NO₃ concentrations during similar periods. Nonparametric comparison of median values and analysis of covariance with discharge as a covariant produced similar results. Nitrate concentrations reported by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) from 1967 to 1971 were not statistically (P > 0.05) different from values reported by the Illinois State Water Survey (ISWS) for two of three river reaches. Additionally, NO₃ concentrations reported by USGS from 1972 to 1974 were not statistically different than concentrations reported by the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency (IEPA) for four of five river reaches. From 1969 to 1971, NO₃ concentrations reported by the Illinois Department of Public Heath and the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency (IDPH/IEPA) were less than one‐fourth the magnitude of values reported by ISWS. The median NO₃ concentrations measured by the Central Illinois Public Service (CIPS) were significantly greater than those measured by USGS and IDPH/IEPA in the three comparable sampling locations. The use of NO₃ concentrations measured by CIPS and IDPH/IEPA prior to 1972 is not recommended.     

MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF WATER QUALITY IN THE RICHIBUCTO DRAINAGE BASIN (NEW BRUNSWICK,CANADA)1

ABSTRACT: Specific conductivity, pH, dissolved oxygen, carbon, phosphorous, and nitrogen species were measured at 36 stations in the Richibucto River drainage basin, including the estuary, in New Brunswick, Canada, over the six‐year period 1996 through 2001. Each station was sampled between 1 and 26 times (mean = 7.5, standard deviation = 6.0) during the ice free seasons without regard to tide. There was significant variance among stations in most parameters. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to identify the processes explaining the observed variance in water quality. Because of the high variability in specific conductance, stations were first grouped in a freshwater subset and an estuarine (brackish water) subset. For freshwater stations, most of the variance in water quality was explained by pH and total organic carbon, as well as high nutrient concentrations. These high nutrient concentrations, along with water salinity, which varies with flow and tides, are also important in determining water quality variability in brackish water. It is recommended that water quality parameters that were found to explain most of the variance by PCA be monitored more closely, as they are key elements in understanding the variability in water quality in the Richibucto drainage basin. Cluster analyses showed that high phosphorous and nitrate concentrations were mostly found in areas of peat runoff, tributaries receiving treated municipal effluent, and lentic zones upstream of culverts. Peat runoff was also shown to be acidic, whether it is runoff from a harvested area or a natural bog.     

REGIONAL SCALE MODELING OF SURFACE AND GROUND WATER INTERACTION IN THE SNAKE RIVER BASIN1

ABSTRACT: Changes in irrigation and land use may impact discharge of the Snake River Plain aquifer, which is a major contributor to flow of the Snake River in southern Idaho. The Snake River Basin planning and management model (SRBM) has been expanded to include the spatial distribution and temporal attenuation that occurs as aquifer stresses propagate through the aquifer to the river. The SRBM is a network flow model in which aquifer characteristics have been introduced through a matrix of response functions. The response functions were determined by independently simulating the effect of a unit stress in each cell of a finite difference groundwater flow model on six reaches of the Snake River. Cells were aggregated into 20 aquifer zones and average response functions for each river reach were included in the SRBM. This approach links many of the capabilities of surface and ground water flow models. Evaluation of an artificial recharge scenario approximately reproduced estimates made by direct simulation in a ground water flow model. The example demonstrated that the method can produce reasonable results but interpretation of the results can be biased if the simulation period is not of adequate duration.     

FREQUENCY-DURATION ANALYSIS OF DISSOLVED-OXYGEN CONCENTRATIONS IN TWO SOUTHWESTERN WISCONSIN STREAMS1

ABSTRACT: Historically, dissolved-oxygen (DO) data have been collected in the same manner as other water-quality constituents, typically at infrequent intervals as a grab sample or an instantaneous meter reading. Recent years have seen an increase in continuous water-quality monitoring with electronic dataloggers. This new technique requires new approaches in the statistical analysis of the continuous record. This paper presents an application of frequency-duration analysis to the continuous DO records of a cold and a warm water stream in rural southwestern Wisconsin. This method offers a quick, concise way to summarize large time-series data bases in an easily interpretable manner. Even though the two streams had similar mean DO concentrations, frequency-duration analyses showed distinct differences in their DO-concentration regime. This type of analysis also may be useful in relating DO concentrations to biological effects and in predicting low DO occurrences.     

SUSPENSOIDS IN NEW YORK CITY'S DRINKING WATER RESERVOIRS: TURBIDITY APPORTIONMENT1

ABSTRACT: The technique of i ndividual p article a nalysis conducted by s canning electron microscopy interfaced with a utomated X ‐ray microanalysis (IPA/SAX) was used to characterize suspended particulate matter in New York City's drinking water reservoirs and their tributaries. The study covered a two year period and involved analyses of more than 300 samples. The particle cross sectional area per unit volume (PAV), or area concentration, was measured to account for the observed turbidity, a representation of light scattering property of the studied medium. A simple linear model with a nearly zero intercept was able to explain more than 85 percent of the variation in the measured turbidity. Moreover, the particle assemblage was categorized into generic particle types with distinctive geochemical or geological origins. Thus, PAV compositions in terms of particle types could be apportioned into turbidity components based on the model. Inorganic tripton, dominated by aluminosilicate (clay) and silicate of nonbiological nature, was found to be the major turbidity causing constituent in most cases. With the exception of one reservoir where organic detritus was significant, the predicted inorganic particle turbidity agreed with the measured turbidity within experimental error.     

ORGANIZATIONAL EVALUATION OF INDUSTRIAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL IN THE NEW YORK REGION1

ABSTRACT: Non-technological factors related to the behavior and characteristics of organizations involved in pollution control are explored here as to their importance as determinants or indicators of the level of pollution control effectiveness. Methods of evaluating the existing level of effectiveness are developed and tested using the response of a selected set of industrial establishments to state water pollution abatement action in the New York Region from 1966 to 1971. The compliance of 209 manufacturing establishments to state abatement orders in the New York Region is evaluated with respect to selected organizational and industrial characteristics and characteristics of the firms'socioeconomic environment. The influence of state policies arid programs is also discussed. It was found that the degree of compliance to state abatement action by industry in the Region is positively related to organization size, the extent of waste generation, the wealth and size of the town in which the firm is located, and the availability of waste treatment facilities in the town. The age of the firm was not related to compliance. The structure of state abatement scheduling also influences the degree of compliance. The methods of analysis used here provide a basis for a comprehensive analysis of the effectiveness of pollution control as an alternative to the case by case approach that is currently being used.     

MASS BALANCE MODEL ESTIMATION OF PHOSPHORUS CONCENTRATIONS IN RESERVOIRS1

ABSTRACT: Mass balance models have been common tools in lake quality management for some years. However, verification for use on reservoirs, especially in the Western United States, has been seriously lacking, In this study, such a verification is attempted using data from the U.S EPA National Eutrophication Survey. Several models from the literature are compared for accuracy in application to the western reservoir data. Model standard error and correlation between estimated and observed reservoir phosphorus concentrations are the Criteria used for comparison. Standard errors am further used to calculate uncertainty of trophic state classification based on estimated phosphorus concentration. The model proposed by Dillon and Rigler (1974) proved most accurate, with a correlation coefficient of 0.86 and standard error of 0.2, based on logarithmic transformed values. Deficiencies in the other models appear to & from coefficients fit to lake data and from inappropriate model formulation.     

REGRESSION MODELS FOR ESTIMATING HERBICIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN U.S. STREAMS FROM WATERSHED CHARACTERISTICS1

ABSTRACT: Regression models were developed for estimating stream concentrations of the herbicides alachlor, atrazine, cyanazine, metolachior, and trilluralin from use‐intensity data and watershed characteristics. Concentrations were determined from samples collected from 45 streams throughout the United States during 1993 to 1995 as part of the U.S. Geological Survey's National Water‐Quality Assessment (NAWQA). Separate regression models were developed for each of six percentiles (10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 90th, 95th) of the annual distribution of stream concentrations and for the annual time‐weighted mean concentration. Estimates for the individual percentiles can be combined to provide an estimate of the annual distribution of concentrations for a given stream. Agricultural use of the herbicide in the watershed was a significant predictor in nearly all of the models. Several hydrologic and soil parameters also were useful in explaining the variability in concentrations of herbicides among the streams. Most of the regression models developed for estimation of concentration percentiles and annual mean concentrations accounted for 50 percent to 90 percent of the variability among streams. Predicted concentrations were nearly always within an order of magnitude of the measured concentrations for the model‐development streams, and predicted concentration distributions reasonably matched the actual distributions in most cases. Results from application of the models to streams not included in the model development data set are encouraging, but further validation of the regression approach described in this paper is needed.