LANDCARE AND COMMUNITY-LED WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN VICTORIA,AUSTRALIA1

ABSTRACT: Australia's ‘Landcare’ program is a community-based participatory program established by government to tackle the problem of land degradation. Landcare involves thousands of Australians working together in locally based groups, tackling problems of common concern. Government and community are now looking to ‘scale up’ the Landcare idea to a regional level. State and territory governments have moved to create regional (often watershed-based) frameworks for land management planning and resource conservation, in accordance with the concept of integrated watershed management. Growing out of the success of community involvement in Landcare, many of these approaches involve the community. However scaling up of the Landcare idea introduces problems of both time and space. There have been a number of problems experienced in the implementation of Landcare and integrated watershed management. These problems include the equitable delineation of membership on decision-making bodies; the raising of sufficient funds for program implementation; and the coordination of a diversity of governmental layers, planning processes and management programs. This paper reviews how the State of Victoria has responded to these challenges and suggests what challenges remain.     

THE (POLITICAL) SCIENCE OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN THE ECOSYSTEM AGE1

ABSTRACT: Ecosystem management has become an important unifying theme for environmental policy in the past decade. Whereas the science of ecosystem dynamics suggests that it will remain difficult to define ecosystem borders and all of the natural and anthropogenic effects that influence them, the politics of ecosystem management require that a national ecosystem delineation standard be adopted. Moreover, a political framework for ecosystem management decision making must be designed in such a way as to complement the hierarchical, interrelated nature of ecosystems generally. This paper advocates that a watershed-based ecosystem delineation standard is the most politically suitable because it will be easily understood by the public and watersheds have a long history as a medium of environmental policy. The paper then proposes that the political framework for watershed-based ecosystem management must depend heavily on state and local autonomy, subject to federally prescribed standards and goals. The Coastal Zone Management Act provides a model for how a national ecosystem management policy can work within state and local watershed cultures and economies.     

A CRITIQUE OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT EFFORTS IN THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI ALLUVIAL PLAIN1

ABSTRACT: Integrated watershed management in the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Plain (Delta) requires blending federal, state, and local authority. The federal government has preeminent authority over interstate navigable waters. Conversely, state and local governments have authority vital for comprehensive watershed management. In the Delta, integrating three broad legal and administrative regimes: (1) flood control, (2) agricultural watershed management, and (3) natural resources and environmental management, is vital for comprehensive intrastate watershed, and interstate river basin management. Federal Mississippi River flood control projects incorporated previous state and local efforts. Similarly, federal agricultural programs in the River's tributary headwaters adopted watershed management and were integrated into flood control efforts. These legal and administrative regimes implement national policy largely in cooperation with and through technical and financial assistance to local agencies such as levee commissions and soil and water conservation districts. This administrative infrastructure could address new national concerns such as nonpoint source pollution which require a watershed scale management approach. However, the natural resources and environmental management regime lacks a local administrative infrastructure. Many governmental and non governmental coordinating organizations have recently formed to address this shortcoming in the Delta. With federal and state leadership and support, these organizations could provide mechanisms to better integrate natural resources and environmental issues into the Delta's existing local administrative infrastructure.     

INTEGRATED WATERSHED MANAGEMENT ON THE TRUCKEE RWER IN NEVADA1

ABSTRACT: The Truckee River is a vitally important water source for eastern California and western Nevada. It runs 100 miles from Lake Tahoe to Pyramid Lake in the Nevada desert and serves urban populations in greater Reno-Sparks and agricultural users in three Nevada counties. In the 1980s and 1990s, a number of state and local groups initiated projects which, taken collectively, have accomplished much to improve watershed management on the Truckee River. However, the task of writing a management plan for the entire watershed has not yet been undertaken. Key players in state, federal and local government agencies have instead chosen to focus specific improvement efforts on more manageable, achievable goals. The projects currently underway include a new agreement on reservoir operation, restoration of high priority sub-watersheds, public education and involvement, water conservation education, and water resource planning for the major urban population centers. The approach which has been adopted on the Truckee River continues to evolve as more and more people take an interest in the river's future. The many positive projects underway on the watershed are evaluated in terms of how well they meet the definition of the ambitious water resources strategy, “integrated watershed management.”     

NEW REQUIREMENTS FOR LOCAL UNITS OF GOVERNMENT IN WATER RESOURCES PLANNING: INSIGHTS FOR IMPLEMENTATION FROM RECENT WATER RESOURCES PLANNING RESEARCH1

ABSTRACT: Recent Federal and some State legislation has enlarged the scope of permitted or required actions of local units of government in water resources management and protection. Much of the legislation encourages local units of government to introduce water resources planning measures which will be preventive instead of corrective. Extensive public works measures, environmental destruction and the threat to human life can thus be eliminated or reduced. Research has developed and tested a method for identifying the elements of a water resources protection program for small urbanizing watersheds which was technically adequate and socially acceptable to the communities implementing such programs. Research results suggest that deliberate efforts will be necessary to inform and educate local units of government as to the usefulness of the legislation; and that the program must reflect local natural resource conditions and local preferences for the method of accomplishing the protection. Successful implementation could be restrained by inertia of local units of government, a lack of tradition in such programs, and hostile existing agencies.     

THE LOCAL-STATE-FEDERAL TEAM APPROACH TO FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT1

Results of the establishment of a Local Flood Relations program in 1953 by TVA are discussed. In 16 years TVA has produced local floodplain information reports for 126 communities. As of September 1, 1969, 66 valley communities had adopted floodplain provisions in their zoning ordinances or subdivision regulations, or both. The local-state-Federal team approach to floodplain management is viable and any other appears to be doomed to failure. A floodplain management program can be expected to succeed as a collaborative effort at all levels of government, each playing the part and assuming the responsibilities best fitted to it. Most of us now accept that our flood problems will not be solved by engineering works alone or even in combination with upstream land management. The solution requires a linking of broad community planning with traditional engineering works. This means that the local, state, and Federal objectives and policies must be effectively coordinated. This method has been developed and satisfactorily applied in the Tennessee Valley during the past decade. The need for more effective means for coping with mounting local flood losses was recognized by the Tennessee Valley Authority and led to the establishment of its Local Flood Relations program in 1953. Since a working relationship with the people of the Valley and their state and local institutions had been carefully nurtured by TVA for over twenty years, it was only natural that the new program would also be a cooperative one.     

UNDERSTANDING A WATERSHED FROM THE BIOLOGICAL VIEWPOINT1

In watershed management the effects of plants on water cannot be considered a constant and forgotten because: plants of different sizes and forms use water at different rates and plants of the same size differ in their needs for water because of anatomical differences. Many common denominators are present in all watersheds covered by vegetation. Forces exerted on the soil water by vegetation, climate and soil are the same kinds of forces. The differences between watersheds in water yield potential appear to be due to differences in the degree in which these forces are exerted. However, the influence of biotic factors are more individual. The similarities and differences existing between watersheds suggest some principles that can be used as guides to understanding individual watershed problems and as possible guides to determining when, how, and where to treat a given watershed. Eleven principles are given and their application to the definition and solution of biological or vegetational problems of watershed management are discussed.     

INTEGRATING SERVICE‐LEARNING INTO WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES1

ABSTRACT: The objective of this article is to open a dialogue on integrating service‐learning into community based watershed management programs and to discuss opportunities and challenges that a service‐learning program presents to universities and communities. The article presents the concept and definition of service‐learning, and arguments concerning why institutions of higher education and university faculty and students should be involved with community based watershed management programs. The article describes a case study for developing a service‐learning program for watershed management at Virginia Tech and discusses lessons learned from the case study. The paper concluded that to make a service‐learning program sustainable, there should be a long term plan, regular and effective communication with the stakeholders, and some incentives for faculty and students for long term commitment to the community based watershed management programs.     

美国环境应急管理制度简析

美国作为工业发达国家,经过百余年的发展,建立了世界领先的环境应急管理制度。自2005年松花江水污染事件爆发至今,我国的环境应急管理需求迫切,管理水平也在飞速提升。对美国的环境应急管理制度的分析能为我国环境应急管理工作提供借鉴。首先,美国设立了以宪法为根基,以应急管理法律法规为主要枝干,以针对突发性环境事件的专门性立法为具体内容的管理体系。其次,美国建立了包括总统、联邦应急管理署、美国国家环境保护局,以及州、县和地方政府中的管理机构在内的多层级应急管理系统。再次,美国基于国家应急系统(NRS)及其核心国家应急计划(NCP),为环境应急响应工作制定了清晰的工作流程。此外,美国还设立了超级基金,有助于有效解决应对环境突发事件的资金来源问题。2014年1月,美国西弗吉尼亚州发生埃尔克河化学品泄漏污染水源事件,通过将该污染事故作为案例进行分析,本文详细梳理了美国各层级政府对该污染事故的应急响应处理流程,体现出其具有的流程规范、分工清晰、属地处理、联邦支持等特点。     

THE WESTERN WATER COMMISSION: WATERSHED MANAGEMENT RECEIVES THE AVI'ENTION OF A NEW GENERATION1

ABSTRACT: Our nation periodically reviews national water policy and considers its directions for the future. The most recent examination was directed at the western United States and the role of the federal agencies in meeting its needs. The West is no longer the frontier, but rather contains vibrant cities and booming centers of international trade, as well as tourism, mineral, and oil and gas development, agricultural, and other development. In this changing environment, federal water policies need to consider the long term sustainability of the West, provide justice to Indian tribes, protect the rivers and ecosystems on which natural systems depend, balance the needs of newcomers with those of agricultural users and communities, and meet a myriad of other demands. The Western Water Policy Review Advisory Commission has just concluded its review of these issues and issued its report. Key among the recommendations is the need to coordinate federal agencies at the basin and watershed level and make government more responsive to local needs, but within a framework that includes national mandates. The Commission's recommendations are presented here, along with some of the issues that surrounded the operations of the Commission.     

INTEGRATING DIFFUSEINONPOINT POLLUTION CONTROL AND WATER BODY RESTORATION INTO WATERSHED MANAGEMENT1

ABSTRACT: The objective of water quality/watershed management is attainment of water quality goals specified by the Clean Water Act. The Total Maximal Daily Load (TMDL) planning process is a tool to set up watershed management. However, TMDL methodologies and concepts have several problems, including determination of Loading Capacity for only low flow critical periods that preclude consideration of wet weather sources in water quality management. Research is needed to develop watershed pollutant loading and receiving waters Loading Capacity models that will link wet and dry weather pollution loads to the probability of the exceedence of water quality standards. The long term impact of traditional Best Management Practices as well as ponds and wetlands, must be reassessed to consider long term accumulation of conservative toxic compounds. Socioeconomic research should focus on providing information on economic and social feasibility of implementation of additional controls in water quality limited watersheds.     

Adaptive Management and Watersheds: A Social Science Perspective1

Abstract:  Adaptive management is often proposed as the most effective way to manage complex watersheds. However, our experience suggests that social and institutional factors constrain the search for, and integration of, the genuine learning that defines adaptive management. Drawing on our work as social scientists, and on a guided panel discussion at a recent AWRA conference, we suggest that watershed‐scale adaptive management must be recognized as a radical departure from established ways of managing natural resources if it is to achieve its promise. Successful implementation will require new ways of thinking about management, new organizational structures and new implementation processes and tools. Adaptive management encourages scrutiny of prevailing social and organizational norms and this is unlikely to occur without a change in the culture of natural resource management and research. Planners and managers require educational, administrative, and political support as they seek to understand and implement adaptive management. Learning and reflection must be valued and rewarded, and fora established where learning through adaptive management can be shared and explored. The creation of new institutions, including educational curricula, organizational policies and practices, and professional norms and beliefs, will require support from within bureaucracies and from politicians. For adaptive management to be effective researchers and managers alike must work together at the watershed‐scale to bridge the gaps between theory and practice, and between social and technical understandings of watersheds and the people who occupy and use them.     

Measuring good governance: piloting an instrument for evaluating good governance principles

ABSTRACT

As federal, state, and local governments and agencies respond to calls to make decisions and implement programs according to tenets of ‘good governance’, a need exists to develop methods for systematically evaluating performance. ‘Good governance’ has been characterized as including a wide array of principles, which vary across literatures. Comparatively little scholarship has sought to systematically quantify program achievement in accordance with these principles. We develop and present a scale for measuring program achievement in accordance with eight main principles of good governance: inclusivity, fairness, transparency, accountability, legitimacy, direction, performance, and capability. We present the results of a pilot implementation of the scale within the context of two community-based deer management programs. Our results suggest that these principles of good governance may not sort into distinct dimensions in a real-world context.     

ADULT EDUCATION AND WATERSHED KNOWLEDGE IN UPSTATE NEW YORK1

ABSTRACT: Integrated watershed management encompasses complex physical and social issues that have impacts on environmental resources. A key aspect of this holistic effort is public education. Most researchers and practitioners agree that an informed public is a crucial part of the environmental management process. Yet, educational programs that provide stakeholders with information about physical processes in watersheds are often unavailable. This paper assesses the effect of an education program for residents of the New York City watershed. Surveys evaluated certain knowledge levels and attitudes of participants and compared three groups: individuals who utilized the educational materials completely (full users), those who received the materials but did not use them completely (partial users), and watershed residents who did not receive the educational program (nonrecipients). Full users displayed a higher level of knowledge concerning specific watershed processes than did partial users and nonrecipients. In terms of applying that knowledge across linked concepts, however, we observed no significant differences between the three readership levels. Furthermore, partial users engaged in less evaluation of issues that related to the broader watershed context. The findings from this project have implications for educational and regulatory institutions and program development relating to watershed protection.     

THE WATERSHED IN PRINCIPLE1

Three fundamental concepts linking drainage basin characteristics, stream behavior, and management of watersheds are deduced from field data and observations. An electrical analogy of a watershed clarifies definitions and broadens understanding of this complex natural resource. The three basic principles deal with (1) the interrelationships of watershed morphology, constitution, and appearance; (2) the nature of the control man can exert over runoff-influencing forces, and (3) the efficiency of watershed management efforts. Recognition of these principles can assist educators, managers, planners and researchers to more fully inform students and to more effectively guide and evaluate management decisions.     

Integrated Resource Management: Moving from Rhetoric to Practice in Australian Agriculture

/ Implementing the concept of sustainability through integrated approaches to natural resource management poses enormous challenges for both the rural communities and government agencies concerned. This paper reviews the underlying rhetoric of sustainable agricultural systems and the integrated resource management paradigm and identifies some of the challenges being experienced in translating this rhetoric into practice. A relatively recently implemented community-based integrated catchment management (ICM) process in a rural community in northeast Australia is examined in terms of some of the lessons learned that may be relevant to other similar integrated resource management (IRM) processes. It reveals a pragmatic, opportunistic, and evolving implementation process based on adaptive learning rather than a more traditional "rational" planning approach. Some essential characteristics of a community-based IRM process are identified, including fostering communication; providing a structure that fosters cooperation and facilities coordination among community, industry, and government agencies; the integration of IRM principles into local government planning schemes; and an emergent strategic approach to IRM program implementation. We conclude by identifying some essential characteristics of an IRM process that can assist a community to adapt to, and manage change for, sustainable resource use.     

Agency–Community Partnership in Landcare: Lessons for State-Sponsored Citizen Resource Management

/ With over 2500 Australian Landcare groups, 65,000 volunteer members, and considerable evidence of program impact, Landcare is an important example of state-sponsored rural development in a developed nation. The agency-community partnership is a fundamental element of Landcare and getting the partnership right is vital to long-term program success. After reviewing the emergence of Landcare in the state of Victoria, the author reports research from a 1995 survey of Victorian Landcare groups. Survey information highlighted the extent of agency-group contact, the important roles agency staff played in many Landcare groups, and the positive impact of agency contact and government funding upon group activity. Large majorities of groups reported they were satisfied with their relationship with agency staff. However, a majority of groups reported money or materials provided to manage land and water degradation was inadequate. Recently proposed changes to the Landcare program will provide government funding of work on private property and may address this concern. A majority of groups also reported support for leadership and management training was inadequate and respondents emphasized the need to revise program guidelines that limit funding for group coordinators. This information highlighted the importance of articulating a practical model of community participation in Australia and adopting a systematic approach to providing agency support for Landcare groups. Reflecting upon the Landcare experience, the author suggests some of the key elements of a practical model of state-sponsored citizen resource management contributing to rural development.KEY WORDS: Landcare; Australia; Community participation; Rural development; Citizen resource management; Sustainable agriculture     

From Forest Regulation to Participatory Facilitation: Forest Employee Perspectives on Organizational Change and Transformation in India

Despite the critical role of government agencies in decentralizing natural resource governance, little work to date has focused on the organizational aspects of the responsible government bureaucracies. Based on a qualitative investigation of the perspectives of Forest Department employees involved in India's Joint Forest Management (JFM) program, this paper aims to provide an understanding of these internal dynamics. Elaborating on why bureaucracies with a learning orientation are essential if participatory natural resource management is to succeed, the paper underlines the constraints to transforming forest agencies' hierarchical work cultures. Foresters describe JFM as a radical departure from traditional forest governance, but suggest that corresponding transformation within the Forest Department has not occurred. Foresters cite as reasons: (1) a target-based incentive system that leaves little room for establishing the relationships with local people needed for collaborative management; (2) rigid rules and regulations that prevent the flexibility needed for adaptive, site-specific problem-solving; (3) a hierarchical, top-down style of communication that prevents the upper administration from learning what is happening on the ground and stifles initiative by field staff; (4) the need for a committed leadership to reverse this hierarchical culture. They point to the few such team-oriented leaders as the key to transforming the Forest Department and enabling participatory forest management to succeed. The authors also recommend accompanying changes in training and reward systems.