The Politics of Waste Incineration in Beijing: The Limits of a Top-Down Approach?

The siting of waste incinerators is often a highly contentious issue. Although most studies have focused on Western countries, municipal solid waste management has become an extremely pressing issue in China. Incineration is being strongly promoted by government officials, yet this has resulted in strong societal opposition. Through documentary analysis and in-depth stakeholder interviews, this article analyses three anti-incineration campaigns in Beijing, focusing on outcomes and campaigner strategies. Anti-incineration campaigns have partly undermined the government's top-down, non-consultative approach to waste management. In developing an ‘expert strategy’, campaigners have exploited government weakness whilst depoliticizing the issue. Yet rather than lead to a more open and consultative incineration policy, it is more likely that officials will circumvent unrest through increasing opacity and by choosing sites in locations where opposition is less likely to emerge.     

The Edge of “Animal Rights”

A central task of environmental ethics, which have been arising since 1960s, is to extend the objects of moral concern beyond the individuals of Homo sapiens. (Here, it involves the issue of the boundary of environmental ethics. In a narrow sense, an environmental ethic must grant moral concern to holistic environmental objects (such as ecosystems). On the other hand, if we broadly define the environmental ethic as an ethic that shows moral concern not limited to Homo sapiens and its individuals only, then, these “generalized” environmental ethics include Peter Singer’s “animal liberation” and Tom Regan’s “animal rights”. In this article, the term “environmental ethic” refers to an environmental ethic in a generalized sense.) All the objects deserving moral concern constitute the moral community. The trajectory and boundary of this extension are different among different schools. Compared to other schools, Tom Regan’s “animal rights” has a relatively smaller moral community, making it more “conservative” at first sight. Meanwhile, the rights view, like other schools, faces the question regarding the edge of moral concern. This question consists of two sub-questions: (1) where is the boundary of the moral community and (2) how ought we to treat the objects of moral concern near the boundary? Given the closeness of Regan’s theory to traditional ethics (regarding the boundary of the moral community), this study is mainly focused on analyzing the edge of moral concern within the framework of the theory of animal rights. Further, I investigate the similarities and differences in the boundary of moral concern among various schools of environmental ethics. The comparative analysis demonstrates a subtle relation between science and moral philosophy, and reveals a similar form of a metaphysical premise adopted by all environmental ethics. This research helps to clarify the moral concern of environmental ethics, which is an essential prerequisite for establishing a new ethic, and therefore helps to consolidate the reference of environmental ethics to environmental management.     

The role of parental behaviour for the development of behaviour specific environmental norms – The example of recycling and re-use behaviour

Based on the norm activation theory we developed assumptions about how parents may influence specific pro-environmental behaviours (i.e. re-use of paper and recycling) of their children (age 8–10). A sample of 206 parent-child-dyads were investigated using questionnaires recording norm activation model variables for children (i.e. awareness of need, awareness of consequences, personal norm, subjective norm, pro-environmental behaviour), as well as communication behaviour and actual behaviour of parents. For both behaviours (re-use and recycling) two separate structural equation models were tested (N = 206 and N = 194). Model fit statistics indicate a good fit of empirical data and model structure for both behaviours, supporting our assumption that the norm activation model can be applied to pro-environmental behaviour of young children. Communication behaviour of parents had a different influence on the two respective behaviours. While parents seemed to influence their children's recycling behaviour via sanctions and their own behaviour, re-use of paper was mainly influenced via communication of problem knowledge.     

The development of route knowledge: Multiple dimensions?

Children are better at way-finding than at externalizing their spatial knowledge in abstract settings (e.g. in tests of route recall). It is suggested that this is due to experimenters' tendencies to use single criteria for development, such as the acquisition of landmark knowledge. Children of different ages may be using different types of information in their route representations. However, if only one aspect of the child's knowledge is examined at a time, then developmental changes of style may go unnoticed. Previous experiments have tested children's spatial knowledge as if it were qualitatively similar to that of adults, which is not always appropriate.A study is reported in which young schoolchildren were asked simply to describe routes in a familiar area. There was a developmental shift from a ‘Directions—End Information’ format to one of ‘Landmark—End Information’. From this it is concluded that children may be capable of using different information earlier in life, which is adequate to allow way-finding but which has not been recorded by the traditional unidimensional measures of spatial knowledge. A case is made for the use of combined measures when investigating the many skills involved in environmental cognition.     

The green dividend of urban biking? Evidence of improved community and sustainable development

As the cost of car ownership has skyrocketed, urban biking has experienced the largest share increase of any transportation mode, rising by 40% between the years 2000 and 2014. Growing attention is being paid to the potential local economic development impacts of urban neighbourhoods becoming more bike-friendly. It is now a green economic development strategy in cities as diverse as Chicago, New York City, Portland, and San Francisco to increase bicycling as a transportation mode. This paper reports the results of a survey of 2032 responses from faculty, staff, and students of a car-dependent, downtown university. We use a mixed methods approach, including data from the American Community Survey, to support our arguments and to inform potential savings and economic benefit calculations that can be achieved from bicycle infrastructure investments and anticipated redistributed spending patterns. We argue that urban biking results in a green dividend that promotes local community development and more importantly results in zero carbon emissions.     

The Route to Best Science in Implementation of the Endangered Species Act’s Consultation Mandate: The Benefits of Structured Effects Analysis

The Endangered Species Act is intended to conserve at-risk species and the ecosystems upon which they depend, and it is premised on the notion that if the wildlife agencies that are charged with implementing the statute use the best available scientific information, they can successfully carry out this intention. We assess effects analysis as a tool for using best science to guide agency decisions under the Act. After introducing effects analysis, we propose a framework that facilitates identification and use of the best available information in the development of agency determinations. The framework includes three essential steps—the collection of reliable scientific information, the critical assessment and synthesis of available data and analyses derived from those data, and the analysis of the effects of actions on listed species and their habitats. We warn of likely obstacles to rigorous, structured effect analyses and describe the extent to which independent scientific review may assist in overcoming these obstacles. We conclude by describing eight essential elements that are required for a successful effects analysis.     

Urban economy or environmental policy? The case of Egypt

This paper shows how prevailing economic development paradigms over the last five decades have favoured an urban-based model of economic development at the expense of environmental considerations in developing countries. How the disjuncture between these competing agendas has been experienced in Egypt forms the focus of the paper. Tension between environmental and development/urbanization policies reflects their political encoding aimed at maintaining regime stability. The state has attempted to mediate between the domestic interests of an urban-based elite and the urban poor, international donor dominance of Egypt's economic and urban development strategies, and the country's limited institutional capacity to manage its developmental aspirations. In a policy configuration that buttresses macro-economic policy with urban development priorities, the unfettered role of market processes has produced vast but unregulated urban expansion with, now, increasingly severe environmental consequences. Despite attempts to reconcile the two agendas in the last decade, the paper concludes that the main issues endemic to the public policy domain in Egypt, and in many developing countries, remain: poor line ministry coordination, weak enforcement of environment law, resistance to participation, limited implementation capacity, conflicts between sectoral and cross-sectoral policy formulation, and dependency on external donors. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A transatlantic approach to sustainability? The perspective of sociology

Differing views of the state and varying ideological postures in the United States and Europe place ??invisible and clandestine?? obstacles against the smooth functioning of transatlantic treaties, agreements, and cooperation in general. These differing views and postures must be rendered visible and acknowledged if efforts to perpetuate a cross-Atlantic dialog are to be viable and stable. Neither the advantages of sharing technology nor common economic and political interests will alone adequately ground cooperation. Sociologists in particular are aware of the ways in which indigenous values and beliefs frequently endure, despite the homogenizing structural change that accompanies industrialization, urbanization, and globalization, and cause misperceptions and misunderstandings.     

The Idea of “Ethical Accounting” for a Livestock Farm

This paper presents the idea of a decision-support system for a livestock farm, called “ethical accounting”, to be used as an extension of traditional cost accounting. “Ethical accounting” seeks to make available to the farmer information about how his decisions affect the interests of farm animals, consumers and future generations. Furthermore, “ethical accounting” involves value-based planning. Thus, the farmer should base his choice of production plan on reflections as to his fundamental objectives, and he should make his final decision only after having seriously considered the various consequences for the affected parties. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The Influence of Loss Aversion on Mountain Bikers’ Behavioral Intentions

Public involvement in management decision making has received increased attention from researchers in recent years. These studies, however, have rarely considered differences in behavior resulting from gains and losses, despite ample evidence that individuals’ behavior is not the same across situations. Individuals are often more sensitive to losses than gains, which research suggests is related to ownership (real or perceived) of the item lost. We present evidence from a within-subjects quasi-experimental design to test whether mountain bikers’ reported intentions differ between gain based and loss based conditions. These data were analyzed using a multi-step repeated measures analysis of variance and repeated measures analysis of covariance. The results suggest that losses are more powerful than gains in motivating public engagement in management decision making. Further, the type of action was also shown to influence behavioral intentions. Additional analyses provide support to the claim that, centrality, used as a proximate measure of ownership, moderates the contextual effects on behavioral intentions. Thus, loss aversion, moderated by ownership, is a plausible explanation of stakeholder involvement.     

Compromising sustainable mobility? The case of the Gothenburg congestion tax

Congestion charging is widely considered an effective policy measure to regulate and reduce car traffic demand and associated environmental and health problems in cities. However, introducing restrictive measures to constrain individual choice and behaviour for the common good has often proven difficult. Using a specific case, the Gothenburg congestion tax introduced in 2013, we study the policy process behind the introduction of the tax and assess to what extent green values were compromised along the way. The tax was made possible by co-financing infrastructure investments, including roads, which seemingly contradicts stated goals of reducing car traffic and emissions. We show how the tax was ‘muddled through’ in a top-down political compromise by a grand coalition where different interests could legitimate their support in relation to the achievement of partially conflicting objectives and projects. However, to declare the regulatory goals fully neutralised would be to underestimate the scheme's direct environmental effects and restrictive potential. Finding a compromise with powerful political and economic interests was necessary to get it off the ground. Once launched, however, it can over time regain its restrictive properties and lead to more profound long-term effects.     

Problems of Outdoor Recreation: The Effect of Visitors’ Demographics on the Perceptions of Termessos National Park, Turkey

Visitor demographics, perceptions and their relationships are investigated to determine the problems and issues for outdoor recreation, which has been a neglected part of the Turkish national park system, using the case of Termessos National Park, located in the south of Turkey. The park is attractive for both its historical and natural resources. Five demographic characteristics (gender, age, nationality, education level and income level) were used to test perceptions of the park resources, preference for number of groups and perception of crowding. The data was collected via a questionnaire survey administered on-site. Chi-square tests demonstrated that perceptions are significantly influenced by the nationality of respondents. Archaeological ruins were perceived as the most popular park resource, and were more appreciated by the older age groups, French visitors and those with higher education. Although the park was not perceived to be crowded, at least 25% of all age groups and 30% of all nationalities preferred not to encounter any other groups, whereas a significant majority of Turkish visitors (over 95%) did not mind having one or two groups present during their visit. Visitors with higher education and income levels preferred to encounter fewer groups. At least 60% of the visitors were comfortable with the actual condition of the park. The trails, signage and brochures were considered major problems. As an integrated part of the ruins, redesign of trails was perceived as necessary. Signage was perceived to be the second most important problem, which is also related to trails and orientation, whereas brochures were suggested as supplementary materials.     

Can you be bothered? The role of participant motivation in the valuation of species conservation measures

Group-based approaches to the elicitation of stated preferences are considered particularly suitable for valuing unfamiliar or complex environmental goods. While such exercises provide participants with detailed information and time to think and deliberate, they require a considerable degree of motivation from the respondents. Effects of motivation on willingness to pay (WTP) tend to be ignored within the valuation research community, although similar effects have been reported in psychological literature. In this study, a novel approach using video recordings and behaviour coding of participants in group-based Market Stall meetings was employed to measure motivation as well as its impact on WTP and the theoretical and convergent validity of stated WTP. Indicators of motivation correlated significantly with both WTP statements and their validity, with more motivated individuals stating higher and more valid bids. These findings suggest that the recognition of motivation is an important novel element of research into stated preferences, particularly with respect to usefulness and quality of WTP measures.     

The Right Tree for the Job? Perceptions of Species Suitability for the Provision of Ecosystem Services

Stakeholders in plantation forestry are increasingly aware of the importance of the ecosystem services and non-market values associated with forests. In New Zealand, there is significant interest in establishing species other than Pinus radiata D. Don (the dominant plantation species) in the belief that alternative species are better suited to deliver these services. Significant risk is associated with this position as there is little objective data to support these views. To identify which species were likely to be planted to deliver ecosystem services, a survey was distributed to examine stakeholder perceptions. Stakeholders were asked which of 15 tree attributes contributed to the provision of five ecosystem services (amenity value, bioenergy production, carbon capture, the diversity of native habitat, and erosion control/water quality) and to identify which of 22 candidate tree species possessed those attributes. These data were combined to identify the species perceived most suitable for the delivery of each ecosystem service. Sequoia sempervirens (D.Don) Endl. closely matched the stakeholder derived ideotypes associated with all five ecosystem services. Comparisons to data from growth, physiological and ecological studies demonstrated that many of the opinions held by stakeholders were inaccurate, leading to erroneous assumptions regarding the suitability of most candidate species. Stakeholder perceptions substantially influence tree species selection, and plantations established on the basis of inaccurate opinions are unlikely to deliver the desired outcomes. Attitudinal surveys associated with engagement campaigns are essential to improve stakeholder knowledge, advancing the development of fit-for-purpose forest management that provides the required ecosystem services.     

Is there a correct way of establishing sustainability indicators? The case of sustainability indicator development on the Island of Guernsey

Abstract

The popularity of sustainability indicators is almost inescapable. From the early pioneers such as the ‘Sustainable Seattle’ project (Atkisson, ‘Developing Indicators of a Sustainable Community: lessons from Sustainable Seattle’, in: D. Satterthwaite (Ed), The Earthscan Reader in Sustainable Cities, London, Earthscan, 1996) to the comprehensive European Union benchmarking launched in 2003 (European Commission, European Common Indicators: towards a local sustainability profile, Milan, Ambiente Italia, 2003), it seems that consensus has been reached about the positive impacts that establishing sustainability indicators can bring. This paper uses the case of developing sustainability indicators on the Island of Guernsey over the last three years to show that Agenda 21's call to activate grassroots action is being realised, but in ways that are neither top-down and modernist in approach nor bottom-up and postmodernist as Agenda 21 advocates. Although best practice literature often suggests that community involvement must be engaged prior to designing sustainability indicators, this paper explores the reasons why this is not always possible. Guernsey's case is used to show how it only became possible to generate interest in the indicator process once they were actually up and running. However, it also shows that once interest was secured by a few relevant stakeholders it became possible to further evolve the indicators in a process that has slowly been attracting more and more of the Island's community.     

Environmental Impacts of the Emerging Digital Economy: The E-for-Environment E-Commerce?

The Internet-led digital economy is changing both the production and consumption patterns at the global scale. Although great potential exists to harness information technology in general and the Internet in particular and improve the environment, possible negative impacts of e-commerce on the environment should also be considered and dealt with. In this forum, we discuss both the potential positive and negative impacts of e-commerce. Drawing from insights gained from the complexity theory, we also delineate some broad contours for environmental policies in the information age. Given the paradoxical nature of technological innovations, we want to caution the scientific community and policymakers not to treat the Internet as the Holy Grail for environmental salvation.     

The Fish Fauna of the Doubs River Prior to Completion of the Rhine–Rhône Connection

/ The part of the Doubs River between Montbeliard and Dole (France), i.e., downstream from the confluence with the Allan River, will be affected by the Rhine- Rhone connection project. In order to improve the understanding of the Doubs ichthyofauna, aquatic environments of the Doubs were sampled by electrofishing. Fish diversity and the presence of some rheophilic species demonstrated the good ecological quality of some stretches of the Doubs. This quality was due to alternating areas with very diversified aquatic environments (riffles, islands and side-arms, backwaters) and a considerable range of flow velocities. The differences in the structure of the fish communities of the different types of aquatic environments were more qualitative (fish species) than quantitative (number of species and number of fish). However, the mean number of fish was statistically lower in the canals (Freycinet canal and channelized part of the Allan River) than in the main course and in the backwaters. The natural parts of the Doubs (unnavigable reaches) showed the most diversified environmental structure and had the most rheophilic fish communities. Thus, the rheophilic species were well represented, but they proved also the most vulnerable to river regulation. However, the most abundant fishes throughout the Doubs River were generalists with no special requirements for food sources or spawning substrate.KEY WORDS: Fish communities; Regulation; Restoration; Floodplain; Large ship canal; Doubs River     

How to Apply Ethical Principles to the Biotechnological Production of Food – The Case of Bovine Growth Hormone

Ben Mepham has proposed that a ``matrix' beused in the analysis of ethical problems in foodproduction and elsewhere. In particular cases, thismatrix would ideally cross the most important moralprinciples involved, and the individuals and groupsaffected by the decisions. In the following, Mepham'smodel is assessed in the case of geneticallyengineered bovine growth hormone. My argument is thata more straightforwardly ``consequentialist' analysiscan draw attention to the problems of using thehormone better than Mepham's original proposal. It ispossible, however, that some nuances will be lost inthe process. I do not, therefore, argue for theoverall superiority of my suggestion – it is merelya slightly different, and perhaps sometimes a morepromising, way to analyze the ethical dimensions offood production and marketing.     

The political economy of certificates for land use in Germany – experimental evidence

Certificate trading schemes have been discussed as a cost-efficient means of reducing urban land consumption in Germany by capping and reallocating permissions to conduct building projects. However, in contrast to the established cap & trade systems for emissions, reputation-seeking politicians would be in charge of buying and trading certificates – an aspect not considered to date. We thus present a laboratory experiment that captures politicians’ incentives connected to electoral cycles in a cap & trade scheme for land consumption, whereby tradable certificates are auctioned and grandfathered in equal shares. We find the cap & trade system to be efficient at large; yet, there are several politically relevant distortions that are aggravated by self-serving incentives. We thus identify potential problems to a cap & trade system for urban land consumption that could substantially reduce both its assumed superior efficiency and its political feasibility.