Trees as carbon sinks and sources in the European Union

The carbon (C) sinks and sources of trees that may be accounted for under Article 3.3 of the Kyoto Protocol during the first commitment period from 2008 to 2012 were estimated for the countries of the European Union (EU) based on existing forest inventory data. Two sets of definitions for the accounted activities, afforestation, reforestation and deforestation, were applied. Applying the definitions by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the trees were estimated to be a C source in eight and a C sink in seven countries, and in the whole EU a C source of 5.4 Tg year⁻¹. Applying the definitions by the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change (IPCC), the trees were estimated to be a C source in three and a C sink in 12 countries, and in the whole EU a C sink of 0.1 Tg year⁻¹. These estimates are small compared with the C sink of trees in all EU forests, 63 Tg year⁻¹, the anthropogenic CO₂ emissions of the EU, 880 Tg C year⁻¹, and the reduction target of the CO₂ emissions, 8%. In individual countries, the estimated C sink of the trees accounted for under Article 3.3 was at largest 8% and the C source 12% compared with the CO₂ emissions.     

Estimation of carbon dioxide flux and source partitioning over Beijing, China

The magnitude and partitioning of carbon dioxide emission from the urban area in Beijing, China was estimated based on a statistical approach. Results showed that the urban surface is a net source of CO2 to atmosphere. The main sources of CO2 are vehicles, which accounted for 75.5% and 38.9% of CO2 emission in summer and winter, respectively. At midday in summer, the CO2 uptake of-0.034 mg/（m^2.sec） indicated that vegetation is an important sink of CO2 in summer. Comparison between the annual emission rates of CO2 from the statistical approach and that directly measured by the eddy covariance technique implies that a bottom-up emission approach is a viable means to estimate CO2 emission in an urban area.     

氮输入对沼泽湿地碳平衡的影响

以小叶章沼泽化草甸为对象,利用静态箱-气相色谱法,在三江平原进行野外原位试验,研究氮输入对沼泽湿地碳平衡及其各分量的影响.氮素输入后,沼泽湿地生态系统总初级生产力提高,生物量增大,分别比对照处理增加了10%和26.8%.同时,CH₄和生态系统呼吸CO₂排放量提高,而生态系统CO₂净交换(NEE)和净碳(CO₂和CH₄都转化成对应的碳)交换降低,CO₂、CH₄和NEE的季节变化动态未改变.2004年整个生长季氮输入处理的CO₂和CH₄排放量分别比对照处理升高了34%和145%,NEE和净碳交换分别降低了70%和81.6%,但整个生长季2个处理仍然表现为碳的净吸收.氮输入没有改变沼泽湿地碳“汇”的功能,只是减弱了其作为碳“汇”的功能.     

Bioenergy and the forest industry in Finland after the adoption of the Kyoto protocol

In Finland the percentage of biomass fuels of total primary energy supply is relatively high, close to 17%. The share of biomass in the total electricity generation is as much as 10%. This high share in Finland is mainly due to the cogeneration of electricity and heat within forest industry using biomass-based by-products and wastes as fuels. Forest industry is also a large user of fossil-based energy. About 28% of total primary energy consumption in Finland takes place in forest industry, causing about 16% of the total fossil carbon dioxide emissions.The Kyoto protocol limits the fossil CO₂ and other greenhouse gas emissions and provides some incentives to the Finnish forest sector. There are trade-offs among the raw-material, energy and carbon sink uses of the forests. Fossil emissions can be reduced e.g. by using more wood and producing chemical pulp instead of mechanical one. According to the calculation rules of the Kyoto protocol Finnish forests in 2008–2012 are estimated to form a carbon source of 0.36 Tg C a⁻¹ due to land use changes. Factually the forest biomass will still be a net carbon sink between 3.5 and 8.8 Tg C a⁻¹. Because the carbon sinks of existing forests are not counted in the protocol, there is an incentive to increase wood use in those and to decrease the real net carbon sink. Also the criteria for sustainable forestry could still simultaneously be met.     

The Kyoto Protocol: provisions and unresolved issues relevant to land-use change and forestry

This paper describes the relevant text of the Kyoto Protocol and its implications for land-use change and forestry (LUCF) activities and addresses some of the technical issues that merit further consideration and clarification before the treaty comes into force. Although the phrasing of the Protocol is sometimes ambiguous and the opportunities limited, the Protocol does provide for some selected forest-related activities to be used to meet national commitments for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. To implement the forest-related portions of the Protocol, most importantly: (1) a clear definition for the word ‘reforestation' is required, (2) contradictory wording in Article 3.3 needs to be clarified to establish how credits are to be measured, (3) further thought should be given to the sentence in Article 3.7 which provides that countries with a net carbon sink in LUCF in 1990 cannot include emissions from land-use change in their 1990 baseline, whereas countries with a net carbon source in LUCF can include those emissions in their 1990 baseline, (4) the rules and baseline issues for joint implementation and the clean development mechanism need to be clarified and (5) inclusion of additional forest management activities needs to be considered.     

亚热带稻田生态系统CO2通量特征分析

为评价稻田生态系统大气CO2的收支状况,2008-2009年江西省农业气象试验站利用涡度相关技术对稻田生态系统的CO2通量进行了为期一年的连续观测.对观测的数据进行处理和分析表明:在生长季,稻田生态系统CO2通量总体表现为负值,为CO2的汇.稻田生态系统CO2通量具有明显的日变化特征,白天净吸收CO2的量大于夜间呼吸释...     

喀斯特常绿落叶阔叶混交林旱季CO2通量特征及其影响因子

对广西木论国家级自然保护区喀斯特常绿落叶阔叶混交林旱季生态系统CO₂净交换（NEE）的变化特征及其与环境因子的关系进行初步分析，计算研究期间碳汇大小，与其他相似气候条件下的不同生态系统进行对比，以期为准确估算该生态系统的年碳汇量提供基础。利用涡度相关法对该地区旱季（2018年10月1日~2019年3月31日）CO₂通量进行连续观测，同时开展降水量（P）、光合有效辐射（PAR）、空气温度（T_air）、土壤温度（T_soil）以及土壤含水量（SWC）等环境因子监测。观测期内该生态系统CO₂通量及浓度具有明显的"单谷"状日变化特征，白天表现为明显的碳汇，夜间则表现为明显的碳源，NEE在12：00最强，为-0.309±0.330 mg CO₂/（m²·s），18：30最弱，为0.074±0.061 mg CO₂/（m²·s）；观测期内NEE、生态系统呼吸（Re）、生态系统总生产力（GEP）分别为-121.4、209.2、330.6 g C/m²，该生态系统在2019年2月的碳吸收能力最强，Re、GEP在2018年10月达到最强；光合有效辐射是白天生态系统CO₂净交换（NEE_d）变化的主要控制因素（R²=0.40，p<0.01），空气温度与夜间生态系统CO₂净交换（NEE_n）存在指数关系（R²=0.1267，p<0.01）；观测期内的降雨抑制了该生态系统的碳汇能力，即降水对NEE产生了抑制作用。旱季该生态系统整体表现出明显的碳汇，碳汇值为1.214 t C/ha，明显低于相似气候条件下的其他生态系统。     

大气14CO2的时空分异特征及其在化石源CO2示踪中的应用

大气CO₂中放射性碳同位素(¹⁴C)的水平可以反映化石源CO₂的影响程度,这对于评估我国目前化石源CO₂的排放状况和制定节能减排政策具有重要的指导意义。本文在概述大气¹⁴CO₂采样和分析方法的基础上,简要介绍了大气¹⁴CO₂观测的起源和主要的源汇过程,重点论述了大气¹⁴CO₂的时空分异特征及其驱动因素;阐述了化石源CO₂浓度的估算方法及¹⁴CO₂在国内外化石源CO₂示踪中的应用现状,并对大气¹⁴CO₂观测在我国化石源CO₂示踪中的应用前景进行了展望;旨在为我国正确地开展大气¹⁴CO₂的观测研究,深刻地理解特定区域大气¹⁴CO₂的时空分异特征和化石源CO₂的分布状况提供参考。     

中国服务业CO2排放的时空特征与EKC检验

采用IPCC温室气体排放清单中CO₂排放因子与估算方法,核算了1995—2012年中国30个省区(不含港澳台地区和西藏自治区数据,全文同)服务业的CO₂排放量,并对30个省区服务业人均CO₂排放量的时空特征进行分析;利用基于面板数据的EKC模型检验中国及其三大经济带服务业增长与CO₂排放之间的关系. 结果表明:在考察期内,中国服务业人均CO₂排放量从0.16 t升至0.77 t,服务业人均增加值从1 621.04元增至9 991.95元;服务业人均CO₂排放量排在前列的省区大都位于东部地区;东部和中部地区人均CO₂排放量与服务业人均增加值之间呈线性正相关,人均服务业增加值每增加1个单位,人均CO₂排放量将分别增加1.02和1.16个单位;西部地区人均CO₂排放量与服务业人均增加值之间呈单调递增关系. 在此基础上,提出差别化的碳减排对策:①东部地区应通过技术改进和优化产业结构、能源消费结构来降低CO₂排放,并成为中国服务业节能减排的“领头羊”;②中、西部地区应在保持服务业经济适当增速的前提下,将提高能源利用效率和降低能源强度作为减排重点.      

青海湖东北岸天然草地CO2 通量变化特征

采用涡度相关法对青海湖东北岸地区草甸化草原生态系统的CO₂ 通量进行了观测,结果表明： 在生长季节(5~9 月),就日变化,08:00~19:00 为CO₂ 净吸收,20:00~07:00 为CO₂ 净排放,CO₂ 通量 净吸收峰值一般出现在12:00 时,7 月份12:00 时CO₂ 净吸收峰值为1.41 g·(m2·h)^-1;就月变化,7 月 是生长季CO₂ 净吸收最高月份,月CO₂ 净吸收量达到162.70 g·m^-2,整个生长季CO₂ 净吸收的总量达 468.07 g·m^-2。非生长季节(1~4 月及10~12 月),CO₂ 通量日变化振幅极小,最大CO₂ 净排放通量出现 在3 月,为0.29 g·(m2·h)^-1,除12 月和1 月各时段CO₂ 通量接近于零,其余月份各时段CO₂ 净排放在 0.02~0.29 g·(m2·h)^-1;3 月是全年CO₂ 净排放的最高月份,全月CO₂ 净排放量为72.33 g·m^-2,整个非生 长季CO₂ 净排放为319.78 g·m^-2。结果表明,无放牧条件下青海湖东北岸地区草甸化草原,全年CO₂ 净吸收量达148.30 g·m^-2,是显著的CO₂ 汇。     

Mitigation Options for Enteric Methane Emissions from Dairy Animals: An Evaluation for Potential CDM Projects in India

Enteric fermentation in livestock is an important source of anthropogenic methane emission. India, with its large livestock population, is estimated to contribute 10.8 Tg of methane annually from this source. An evaluation of various methane mitigation options indicate that some of the available technologies like, diet supplementation with feed additive and molasses urea product are highly cost effective in reducing enteric methane emissions. The gross cost of methane abatement from use of feed additive monensin premix ranges from €0.6 to €1.8/ton CO₂ equivalent, for buffaloes and indigenous cows, respectively. The gross cost of enteric methane mitigation from supplementing molasses urea products and dietary manipulation through increased concentrate feeding is much higher. But, as the monetary value of the increased milk production on application of these technologies was higher than the annual cost of reduction strategy for buffaloes and crossbred cows, the net costs of the former mitigation option was negative for buffaloes (€-28.1/ton CO₂) and of the latter for crossbred cows (€-7.0/ton CO₂,). The availability of cost-effective technologies suggest that the methane mitigation projects under CDM, can be planned in the Indian dairy sector to the mutual benefit of countries with emission targets and India. The vast dairy animal population of India and resulting methane emissions provide good opportunity these countries to buy reasonable quantum of emission credits from projects in India. Such projects will work to the benefit to India by providing a tool for technology transfer to increase animal productivity and attract capital that assists in more prosperous and environmental friendly milk production in the country.     

京津冀区域生产和消费CO2排放的时空特点分析

区分消费和生产二氧化碳排放是对开放的经济区域进行排放责任划分的基础,日渐受到政策制定者的关注.利用经济投入产出-生命周期分析模型,对京津冀区域1997年、2002年和2007年的消费和生产二氧化碳排放时空特征及二氧化碳排放平衡进行分析.结果表明,京津冀区域消费和生产二氧化碳排放呈约4%的年均增长;贸易隐含二氧化碳排放比例为30%~83%,并以国内贸易隐含二氧化碳排放为主;河北的消费和生产二氧化碳排放占区域主导,增速和二氧化碳排放强度高于北京和天津;京津冀区域为二氧化碳排放净流入区域,存在部分排放责任转移;京津为二氧化碳排放净转入地区,冀为二氧化碳排放净转出地区;京津冀三地二氧化碳排放关键部门分布集中且相似度较高,可以考虑区域联合控制.其中,电力、蒸汽、热水生产和供应业和金属冶炼及压延加工业对二氧化碳排放的依赖性最大,承担较大的其他部门的二氧化碳排放责任.投入产出分析解析了地区生产和消费二氧化碳排放情况,有利于区域减排的精细化管理和制定相应对策,并促进区域减排合作.     

Quantitative analysis of CO2 embodiment in international trade: An overview of emerging literatures

The increasing volume of CO₂ embodiment in international trade adds a layer of complexity to environmental policies and has raised arguments on the traditional production based responsibility for CO₂ emissions. In order to help understand the quantity of CO₂ embodiment in trade and its policy implications, this paper gives observations to recently emerging literatures that quantitatively discuss CO₂ embodiment in trade. The analytical approaches share the principle of using input and output modeling but vary dramatically in study boundary and estimation accuracy. The calculations can be roughly categorized into three types: direct quantification of CO₂ embodiments in multiregional trade, direct quantification of CO₂ embodiment in bilateral trade, and indirect analysis by comparing the scenarios with or without trade. The practical estimations strongly rely on trade partner selection and data availability. An obvious imbalance of net CO₂ embodiment in the commodity trade between major developed countries and developing economies as a whole was confirmed by these literatures. Carbon taxes and other possible limitations on CO₂ emissions have been addressed. The consistency across the calculations could be enhanced by systematic analyses in more detail to convince the international community to take binding commitments for the reduction of global CO₂ emissions.     

模拟海平面上升和氮负荷增加对河口感潮沼泽湿地CO2垂直交换的影响

海平面上升和氮负荷增加是入海河流河口面临的两个主要全球性环境问题.揭示河口潮滩沼泽湿地CO₂垂直通量对二者及交互作用的响应,对于科学评估全球变化背景下的河口潮滩沼泽湿地生态系统蓝碳功能具有重要的科学意义.本研究以闽江河口鳝鱼滩中潮滩短叶茳芏湿地为研究对象,在野外原位实施模拟海平面上升、氮负荷增加及二者交互作用的实验处理近1年后,在2019年冬季各月的大潮日白天涨潮前、平潮期及落潮后3个阶段,运用透明静态箱（或遮光布遮光）+Li-6800光合作用仪对短叶茳芏湿地生态系统净CO₂交换（NEE）和生态系统呼吸（ER）进行测定.结果发现,与对照处理相比,冬季尺度3种处理下短叶茳芏湿地生态系统NEE均显著增加;模拟海平面上升影响下短叶茳芏湿地生态系统ER无显著变化;氮负荷增加及二者交互作用下,短叶茳芏湿地ER均显著增加.模拟海平面上升、氮负荷增加及二者交互作用情景下,短叶茳芏湿地生态系统总初级生产力（GPP）均明显增加.研究表明,在未考虑甲烷排放的情景下,即使在冬季,海平面上升、氮负荷增加及二者交互作用将可能增加亚热带河口潮滩半咸水沼泽湿地的碳汇功能.     

透明箱法监测稻田生态系统CO2通量的研究

采用透明箱法对稻田生态系统CO₂通量进行了田间定位观测,并对透明箱内CO₂浓度的变化规律及拟合方法进行了探讨.结果表明,在水稻生长旺盛期的晴天(白天),箱内CO₂浓度随测定时间呈非线性变化,因此用常规的线性拟合法(LR)计算的CO₂净吸收通量明显低于指数一级动力学拟合法(ER).在水稻生长旺盛期的阴天、成熟期以及夜间,箱内CO₂浓度随测定时间表现为线性变化,LR法与ER法的CO₂净吸收通量计算结果无显著差异.在水稻生长期间,基于LR法的稻田生态系统碳累积吸收量结果明显低于ER法,而后者与常用方法(植物净固定碳量减去土壤异氧呼吸排放碳量)的计算结果比较接近.证实了当植被同化速率较强时,采用ER法对透明箱内CO₂浓度随时间的变化进行拟合并计算CO₂净吸收通量较为适宜.同时表明采用透明箱法观测农田生态系统CO₂通量是可行的.     

广东省交通碳排放核算及影响因素分析

交通领域是二氧化碳排放的重要领域,为研究广东省的交通碳排放及影响因素,利用IPCC（联合国政府间气候变化专门委员会）在温室气体清单指南中提供的方法估算了广东交通碳排放量,并应用LMDI分解法（对数平均指数法）对广东交通碳排放进行因素分解分析.结果表明:① 2001-2010年广东交通碳排放量从1 950.98×104 t增至6 068.41×104 t,其中交通运输业碳排放是广东交通碳排放的主体,私人交通碳排放已成为广东交通碳排放不可忽视的组成部分.② 交通运输业中的公路碳排放量占比最大,占56%~64%;铁路的碳排放量占比最小,占0.6%~1.6%;水运具有较大的节能优势;民航单位周转量碳排放量最高.③ 交通运输业发展水平、运输结构、私人汽车数量规模对广东交通碳排放增加的贡献率分别为68.79%、36.14%、18.66%,是拉动广东交通碳排放增长的主要因素;运输强度与能源强度的贡献率分别为-18.1%、-6.46%,是抑制交通碳排放增长的因素.广东可以通过采取优化交通运输结构、使用替代清洁能源等措施减少交通碳排放.      

Soil warming effect on net ecosystem exchange of carbon dioxide during the transition from winter carbon source to spring carbon sink in a temperate urban lawn

The significant warming in urban environment caused by the combined effects of global warming and heat island has stimulated widely development of urban vegetations. However, it is less known of the climate feedback of urban lawn in warmed environment. Soil warming effect on net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of carbon dioxide during the transition period from winter to spring was investigated in a temperate urban lawn in Beijing, China. The NEE (negative for uptake) under soil warming treatment (temperature was about 5℃ higher than the ambient treatment as a control) was -0.71 μmol/(m².sec), the ecosytem was a CO₂ sink under soil warming treatment, the lawn ecosystem under the control was a CO₂ source (0.13 μmol/(m².sec)), indicating that the lawn ecosystem would provide a negative feedback to global warming. There was no significant effect of soil warming on nocturnal NEE (i.e., ecosystem respiration), although the soil temperature sensitivity (Q₁₀) of ecosystem respiration under soil warming treatment was 3.86, much lower than that in the control (7.03). The CO₂ uptake was significantly increased by soil warming treatment that was attributed to about 100% increase of α (apparent quantum yield) and A_max (maximum rate of photosynthesis). Our results indicated that the response of photosynthesis in urban lawn is much more sensitive to global warming than respiration in the transition period.     

广东省CO2排放变化的社会经济影响因素

作为我国经济最为发达的省份之一,广东省社会经济可持续发展面临CO₂排放量增长的挑战.从多角度分析广东省CO₂排放变化的社会经济影响因素,有助于其实现低碳发展.基于投入产出模型,从生产、需求和供应角度分析1987—2015年广东省CO₂排放量的变化;此外,采用结构分解分析方法,从需求和供应角度量化广东省各种社会经济因素对CO₂排放变化的相对贡献.结果表明:①与生产端相比,需求侧和供给侧的研究有助于识别不同的关键行业,如建筑业（需求侧）、金融和保险业（供给侧）.②降低碳排放强度是减少广东省CO₂排放的主要因素,而人均最终需求水平和人均初始投入增加是推动广东省CO₂排放增加的主要因素.③生产结构、最终需求结构和初始投入结构变化导致CO₂排放量略有增加,表明广东省具有较大的通过调整结构性因素减排CO₂的潜力.综上,建议除了生产端CO₂减排措施外,广东省还应采取需求侧和供给侧相关措施,如优化消费行为、产品分配行为和初始投入结构等.      

Accounting for time in Mitigating Global Warming through land-use change and forestry

Many proposed activities formitigating global warming in the land-use change and forestry(LUCF) sector differ from measures to avoid fossilfuel emissions because carbon (C) may be held out ofthe atmosphere only temporarily. In addition, thetiming of the effects is usually different. Many LUCFactivities alter C fluxes to and from the atmosphereseveral decades into the future, whereas fossil fuelemissions avoidance has immediate effects. Non-CO₂ greenhouse gases (GHGs), which are animportant part of emissions from deforestation inlow-latitude regions, also pose complications forcomparisons between fossil fuel and LUCF, since themechanism generally used to compare these gases(global warming potentials) assumes simultaneousemissions. A common numeraire is needed to expressglobal warming mitigation benefits of different kindsof projects, such as fossil fuel emissions reduction,C sequestration in forest plantations, avoideddeforestation by creating protected areas and throughpolicy changes to slow rates of land-use changes suchas clearing. Megagram (Mg)-year (also known as`ton-year') accounting provides a mechanism forexpressing the benefits of activities such as these ona consistent basis. One can calculate the atmosphericload of each GHG that will be present in each year,expressed as C in the form of CO₂ and itsinstantaneous impact equivalent contributed by othergases. The atmospheric load of CO₂-equivalent Cpresent over a time horizon is a possible indicator ofthe climatic impact of the emission that placed thisload in the atmosphere. Conversely, this index alsoprovides a measure of the benefit of notproducing the emission. One accounting methodcompares sequestered CO₂ in trees with theCO₂ that would be in the atmosphere had thesequestration project not been undertaken, whileanother method (used in this paper) compares theatmospheric load of C (or equivalent in non-CO₂GHGs) in both project and no-project scenarios.Time preference, expressed by means of a discount rateon C, can be applied to Mg-year equivalencecalculations to allow societal decisions regarding thevalue of time to be integrated into the system forcalculating global warming impacts and benefits. Giving a high value to time, either by raising thediscount rate or by shortening the time horizon,increases the value attributed to temporarysequestration (such as many forest plantationprojects). A high value for time also favorsmitigation measures that have rapid effects (such asslowing deforestation rates) as compared to measuresthat only affect emissions years in the future (suchas creating protected areas in countries with largeareas of remaining forest). Decisions on temporalissues will guide mitigation efforts towards optionsthat may or may not be desirable on the basis ofsocial and environmental effects in spheres other thanglobal warming. How sustainable development criteriaare incorporated into the approval and creditingsystems for activities under the Kyoto Protocol willdetermine the overall environmental and social impactsof pending decisions on temporal issues.     

农垦与放牧对内蒙古草原N2O、CO2排放和CH4吸收的影响

利用优选静态箱/气相色谱法(GC),首次对我国内蒙古草原典型地区进行了人类活动对N₂O、CO₂和CH₄交换通量影响的实验观测结果表明,农垦麦田N₂O平均排放通量比原始草原高出3倍,并改变了草甸草原为CO₂汇的性质,使其季节排放净通量以C计增加14.3 mg·(m²·h).随放牧强度的增加CO₂排放通量呈线性增长,轻牧会引起草原对CH₄吸收的大幅增加,而随着放牧压力的增大,增加值迅速回落.农垦麦田与草甸草原相比地-气间CH₄交换无显著变化,放牧强度对N₂O排放影响无显著规律.土壤湿度和温度是影响草原排放N₂O和CO₂、吸收CH4季节变化形式的关键因子,而人类活动仅影响排放强度.排放和吸收量年际间差异很大,但主要受降水的影响.N₂O和CO₂排放与CH₄吸收峰值相反现象普遍存在.