An experimental study on the burning rate of a continuously released n-heptane spill fire on an open water surface

Spill fires are common during oil product storage and transportation after a loss of containment. Since the burning fuel is moving and the fuel depth is quite shallow, the burning rate in a spill fire is different from that of a pool fire with a static burning zone. Unlike pool fires, which have been studied for decades and have well-established correlations for burning rate, research on spill fires is inadequate. In this paper, continuously released n-heptane spill fire experiments were conducted on open water surfaces with varying fuel discharge rates. The pool diameters were measured, and the spill fire burning rates were estimated based on a dynamic balance between fuel supply and combustion. The burning rates in n-heptane pool fires from the literature were reviewed and compared with the estimated burning rates in spill fires of the same dimension. The spill fire burning rate was found to be close to that in a pool fire during the initial burning phase but lower than that in a bulk burning pool fire and that in a “fuel-level-controlled” pool fire. The distinction between the burning rates of spill fires and pool fires is explained by the heat balance analysis of the fuel layer. A model for the spill fire burning rate was proposed accordingly. The results calculated with the presented model are closer to the measured data than those calculated with pool fire models.     

The Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion (BLEVE): A bibliometric review and futur trends

The phenomenon “Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion” (BLEVE) is one of the most common accidental events in the chemical industry and in the transport of dangerous goods. A bibliographic search in the Web of Science Core Collection reported 375 publications related to BLEVEs from 1979 to the present (August 10, 2022). A bibliometric analysis was conducted using the VOSviewer tool to allow a better understanding of the scientific knowledge on this phenomenon. A comprehensive overview of BLEVE research is presented in terms of annual publication, top journals, countries/regions with the highest productivity, authors and their cooperation networks, key terms, and co-citation analysis. The 375 publications cover 691 authors, 83 journals, 44 countries or territories and 290 institutions. The key publication (highest number of citations and co-citations) for understanding the BLEVE phenomenon is. The results obtained constitute a snapshot of the current state of the art on BLEVEs and can be applied to improve the understanding of research on this topic and establish new trends of research.     

Evaluation of CFD simulations of transient pool fire burning rates

Fire is the most commonly occurring major accident hazard in the chemical and process industries, with industry accident statistics highlighting the liquid pool fire as the most frequent fire event. Modelling of such phenomena feeds heavily into industry risk assessment and consequence analyses. Traditional simple empirical equations cannot account for the full range of factors influencing pool fire behaviour or increasingly complex plant design. The use of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modelling enables a greater understanding of pool fire behaviour to be gained numerically and provides the capability to deal with complex scenarios.This paper presents an evaluation of the Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) for predictive modelling of liquid pool fire burning rates. Specifically, the work examines the ability of the model to predict temporal variations in the burning rate of open atmosphere pool fires. Fires ranging from 0.4 to 4 m in diameter, involving ethanol and a range of liquid hydrocarbons as fuels, are considered and comparisons of predicted fuel mass loss rates are compared to experimental measurements.The results show that the liquid pyrolysis sub-model in FDS gives consistent model performance for fully predictive modelling of liquid pool fire burning rates, particularly during quasi-steady burning. However, the model falls short of predicting the subtleties associated with each phase of the transient burning process, failing to reliably predict fuel mass loss rates during fire growth and extinction. The results suggest a range of model modifications which could lead to improved prediction of the transient fire growth and extinction phases of burning for liquid pool fires, specifically, investigation of: ignition modelling techniques for high boiling temperature liquid fuels; a combustion regime combining both infinite and finite-rate chemistry; a solution method which accounts for two- or three-dimensional heat conduction effects in the liquid-phase; alternative surrogate fuel compositions for multi-component hydrocarbon fuels; and modification of the solution procedure used at the liquid-gas interface during fire extinction.     

庚烷池火多火源燃烧特性的实验研究

多火源燃烧是森林火灾和城市群发性火灾中重要而又特殊的火灾现象,相关研究很少。通过恒定控制液面高度的实验系统,对直径0.1m、0.2m和0.4m的庚烷池火在单个火源、两火源燃烧和三火源线性排列时的火焰高度、火焰体积和燃烧速率等特性进行了实验研究。研究发现,三火源燃烧时中间火源的火焰高度、火焰体积和燃烧速率明显高于两火源燃烧和单火源燃烧,三火源燃烧时边上火源与两火源的燃烧状况难以区分。这些燃烧特性随着火源间距的减小,呈现增大趋势。热量反馈增强和空气卷吸受限这两种火源相互作用机制相互耦合,且随着火源间距的减小而增强,在S/D（S为火源间距,D为油池直径）为2～4时,两种机制强烈竞争,在其他参数范围内热量反馈增强效应占主导作用。研究还发现火焰体积与热释放速率有较好的线性相关关系,单位火焰体积的热释放速率约为1614kW/m3。     

Improved models of failure time for atmospheric tanks under the coupling effect of multiple pool fires

Fire accidents of chemical installations may cause domino effects in atmospheric tank farms, where a large amount of hazardous substances are stored or processed. Pool fire is a major form of fire accidents, and the thermal radiation from pool fire is the primary hazard of domino accidents. The coupling of multiple pool fires is a realistic and important accident phenomenon that enhances the propagation of domino accidents. However, previous research has mostly focused on the escalation of domino accidents induced by a single pool fire. To overcome the drawback, in this study, the failure of a storage tank under the coupling effect of multiple pool fires was studied in view of spatial and temporal synergistic process. The historical accident statistics indicated that the accident scenario of two-pool fires accounted for 30.6% in pool fires. The domino accident scenario involving three tanks is analyzed, and the typical layout of tanks is isosceles right triangle based on Chinese standard “GB50341-2014”. The thermal response and damage of a target tank heated by pool fires were numerically investigated. The volume of 500 m³, 3000 m³, 5000 m³ and 10000 m³ were selected. Flame temperature was obtained by FDS, and then was input onto the finite element model. The temperature field and stress field of target tanks were simulated by ABAQUS. The results showed that the temperature rise rate of the target tanks under multiple pool fires was higher than that under a single pool fire. The failure time of the tank under the coupling effect of multiple fires was lower than that under the superposition of multiple fires without the first stage. The stress and yield strength were compared to judge the failure of the target tank. The model of failure time for the tank under the coupling effect of pool fires was established. Through the verification, the deviation of this model is 4.02%, which is better than the deviation of 15.76% with Cozzani's model.     

Characteristics of large cooking oil pool fires and their extinguishment by water mist

Large cooking oil pool fires, occurring in industrial oil cookers, present a severe hazard to food processing plants due to their size and the large amount of hot oil involved. This paper reports a series of full-scale fire experiments conducted in a large industrial oil cooker mock-up. The characteristics of large cooking oil pool fires and the effect of oil depth and hood position in the oil cooker on fire growth were studied. The use of water mist for extinguishing large oil pool fires and their extinguishing performance under different discharge pressure and with different types of water mist systems were investigated. Experimental results showed that the cooking oil underwent a substantial expansion in volume during heating. The fires developed quickly once the oil auto-ignited. The fire growth rate was affected by the oil depth in the pan and the hood position in the oil cooker. The water mist fire suppression systems effectively extinguished large cooking oil fires and prevented them from re-igniting. Their extinguishing performance was determined by the type of water mist system, discharge pressure and hood position in the oil cooker.     

烃类池火灾热辐射量化分析模型探讨

为澄清有关烃类池火灾热辐射量化分析模型选择中存在的问题,针对"池火计算方法"模型进行量纲分析和物理意义方面的讨论,提出该模型在概念使用、量纲关系、热释放速率的计算以及池火焰模化等方面存在的问题。系统阐述点源模型、Shokri-Beyler模型、Mudan模型等常用烃类池火灾热辐射通量分析模型的适用条件和应用范围。点源模型适用于被辐射目标物从池火焰接受的热辐射通量小于5 kW.m-2情况下池火灾热辐射的量化分析;Shokri-Beyler模型主要应用于估算被辐射目标物从池火焰接受的热辐射通量大于5 kW.m-2的情况;Mudan模型可用于估算无风或有风条件下被辐射目标物从池火焰接受的热辐射通量。     

细水雾对油池火热释放速率影响规律的实验研究

热释放速率是描述火灾现象的重要参数,可以表征火灾发展的强烈程度。利用大尺寸的热释放速率实验测量平台开展细水雾对不同种类油池火灭火效率的实验研究,同时分析细水雾对燃烧产物一氧化碳含量的影响。结果表明,热释放速率曲线能直接反映出细水雾对火源的作用,细水雾作用下三种燃料的热释放速率均被有效抑制,且细水雾的流量越大,对油池火的灭火效果越好。燃烧产物一氧化碳在施加细水雾时出现陡增,表明细水雾隔绝氧气,造成不完全燃烧或者燃烧熄灭。     

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) study of heat radiation from large liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) pool fires

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is flammable and has risks of pool fires during its transportation, storage, and applications. The heat radiation by LPG pool fires poses hazards to individuals nearby and can lead to potential failures of ambient facilities. Due to the high costs and invasive nature of experiments for investigating large-scale pool fires, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is employed in this study as the cost-effective and noninvasive method to simulate the process and analyze the characteristics of large hydrocarbon pool fires. Specifically, an experimentally validated 3-D CFD model has been built to simulate surface emissive power (SEP) and incident radiation of large-scale LPG pool fires with three different diameters and wind speeds. Steady-state simulations with P1 radiation and probability density function (PDF) combustion models were employed to obtain reliable data after the optimizations based on the comparisons with experimental data and empirical models. The comparison with benchmark experimental data demonstrates that the CFD model employed in this study can accurately predict the incident radiation of large LPG pool fires. A new SEP correlation is also proposed, which is specifically for LPG pool fires with a diameter between 10 m and 20 m. Additionally, the safe separation distances between LPG facilities and surrounded objects have been estimated based on the CFD simulation results. The high-resolution CFD model for large LPG pool fires in this work provides noninvasive and direct quantitative evidence to enhance the fundamental understanding on the safety of large LPG pool fires and can assist regulatory agencies in refining the safety limits in the cost-effective and time-saving manners.     

池火灾评价法在环氧乙烷罐区的应用研究

以某石油化工厂区为工程应用背景,通过对环氧乙烷储罐区计算模型的建立,应用池火灾评价法对环氧乙烷储罐发生池火灾的热辐射伤害区域进行了定量计算,得出环氧乙烷罐区发生池火灾的各级影响半径和造成的伤害程度。结果表明,只有当人员撤离罐区67.35 m范围外方可避免受到热辐射伤害。从环氧乙烷罐区的整体安全性出发,提出了具体的防护措施和建议,为企业的安全管理工作提供参考依据。     

隧道火灾研究的知识图谱分析

为了解隧道火灾研究领域的整体情况,绘制隧道火灾科学的知识图谱,本文基于2000-2018年Web of Science和CNKI刊载的隧道火灾论文,利用VOSviewer技术,对隧道火灾科学进行全面可视化分析图谱显示,国际上隧道火灾研究的核心主题是Simulation、Tunnel Ventilation Temperature and Smoke、Tunnel Fire Safety,国内是数值模拟、隧道救援与疏散、隧道的消防灭火、火灾探测报警、隧道结构;高产的作者是Ji Jie和徐志胜等,近期活跃的作者是Zhang Shaogang和石晓龙等;开展隧道火灾研究的国家多位于欧洲。结果表明隧道火灾研究领域的发文量、主题分布及作者间的合作都已初具规模,国内更偏重于工程应用的研究,主题演变略快于国外,我国在此领域处于核心地位。     

Application of fire suppression materials on suppression of LNG pool fires

An LNG pool fire is considered one of the main hazards of LNG, together with LNG vapor dispersion. Suppression methods are designed to reduce the hazard exclusion zones, distance to reach radiant heat of 5 kW/m², when an LNG pool fire is considered. For LNG vapor dispersion, the hazard exclusion zone is the distance travelled by the LNG vapor to reach a concentration of 2.5% v/v (half of the LNG lower flammability limit).Warming the LNG vapor to reach positive buoyancy faster is one way to suppress LNG vapor dispersion and reduce evaporation rate (thus fire size and its associated radiant heat) and that is the main objective in LNG pool fire suppression. Based on previous research, the use of high expansion foam has been regarded as the primary method in suppressing LNG pool fires. However, in 1980, another method was introduced as an alternative pool fire suppression system, Foamglas^®. The research concluded that 90% of the radiant heat was successfully reduced. Currently-called Foamglas^® pool fire suppression (Foamglas^® PFS) is a passive mitigation system and is deployed after the leak occurs. Foamglas^® PFS is non-flammable, and has a density one-third of the density of LNG, thus floats when an LNG pool is formed.This paper describes the study and confirmation of Foamglas^®PFS effectiveness in suppressing LNG pool fires. In addition, while Foamglas^® PFS is not expected to suppress LNG vapor dispersion, further investigation was conducted to study the effect of Foamglas^®PFS on LNG vapor dispersion. An LNG field experiment was conducted at Brayton Fire Field. The experimental development, procedures, results and findings are detailed in this paper.     

烃类流体火灾伤害破坏作用定量分析

对烃类流体火灾的伤害破坏作用进行正确的定量分析是开展重大消防目标火灾风险评估工作的基础。针对烃类流体火灾伤害破坏作用定量分析中存在的问题,系统论述烃类流体火灾伤害破坏作用的定量分析方法,分析并讨论火球、池火、喷射火和蒸气云火灾等不同火灾形式的热辐射通量计算模型及其前提条件,对不同热辐射伤害破坏作用准则及伤害概率模型的适用条件和模型基础进行了论述。     

气-固复合粉体在高原地区灭火性能的试验研究

为满足高原地区低压低氧环境对火灾防治的特殊需求,在拉萨进行模拟试验,研究由溴氟丙烯和13X沸石所组成的气-固复合粉体灭火剂对汽油火的灭火性能,并与平原地区的合肥的灭火效果进行对比。试验结果表明,在拉萨低压低氧的环境下,复合粉体灭火剂对汽油火具有很好的灭火性能。在同样的试验条件下,其灭火时间和灭火剂用量比合肥减少20%以上,说明该复合粉体灭火剂在高原地区有很好的适用性。     

火灾科学的发展前景

本文研究了火灾科学的发展前景，指出了火灾科学必然包括各种领域并列举了课题的分类，阐明了每一领域的研究都是防止火灾损失必不可少的。通过分析火灾科学近年来的工作，阐述了火灾研究的现状。大多数研究都是以最近的火灾为背景展开的，虽然其中许多侧重于基础研究，并未针对某一特定火灾。最后本文提出了火灾研究的将来需要。由于未来技术的发展和生活方式的改变有的难以预测，与之紧密相关的未来火灾也难以想象，因此，只能试从当前火灾研究去推测将来。本文认为将来的火灾研究课题大多数为基础研究，虽然它也或多或少与未来火灾有关系。并且预测随着新概念的引入，将来的火灾研究的数据和方法都活发生很大变化。     

Numerical simulation of small-scale pool fires of LNG

Liquefied natural gas (LNG) has been largely indicated as a promising alternative solution for the transportation and storage of natural gas. In the case of accidental release on the ground, a pool fire scenario may occur. Despite the relevance of this accident, due to its likelihood and potential to trigger domino effects, accurate analyses addressing the characterization of pool fires of LNG are still missing.In this work, the fire dynamic simulator (FDS) has been adopted for the evaluation of the effects of the released amount of fuel and its composition (methane, ethane, and propane), on the thermal and chemical properties of small-scale LNG pool fire. More specifically, the heat release rate, the burning rate, the flame height, and thermal radiation, at different initial conditions, have been evaluated for pool having diameter smaller than 10 m. Safety distances have been calculated for all the investigated conditions, as well.Results have also been compared with data and correlations retrieved from the current literature. The equation of Thomas seems to work properly for the definition of the height over diameter ratio of the LNG pool fire for all the mixture and the investigated diameters.The addition of ethane and propane significantly affects the obtained results, especially in terms of radiative thermal radiation peaks, thus indicating the inadequacy of the commonly adopted assumption of pure methane as single, surrogate species for the LNG mixture.     

LNG池火热辐射模型及安全距离影响因素研究

重点对LNG池火热辐射模型,模型应用方式,以及热辐射安全距离的影响因素做了详细研究,给出池火热辐射模型采用及安全距离计算的方法。对常用的热辐射计算模型(点源模型、LNGFire3和PoFM ISE模型)加以介绍,并对3种模型做了对比研究。PoFM ISE模型充分考虑大池火直径时不完全燃烧的因素以及风速对火焰高度的影响,建议当风速大于1.5 m/s,池火直径大于20 m时采用。同时,进一步研究影响LNG池火热辐射安全距离的各种因素,包括池火直径、风速、环境温度和湿度,从而得出不同条件下池火热辐射安全距离的要求。     

城市火灾中飞火蔓延距离计算方法研究

飞火是城市火灾特别是城市震后火灾的重要蔓延方式之一,它可以使火灾在相距较远的离散可燃物之间进行跳跃式蔓延,从而增加了扑救难度,威胁扑救人员的安全。因此,对飞火蔓延现象的认识和飞火蔓延距离的计算是降低飞火危险性的前提。基于Baum-McCaffrey火焰羽流模型,重点研究在城市火灾羽流中球形飞火颗粒的上升行为和环境风影响...     

Experimental study on fire suppression performance of the high pressure water mist in the engine room of an offshore platform

The total flooding application water mist system is a new type of environmentally-friendly fixed extinguishing system. The optimizing design can improve its fire extinguishing performance. At present, the water mist fire extinguishing system in the engine room of the offshore deepwater semi-submersible support platform has not attracted sufficient attention. In this paper, the water mist in the engine room of a deepwater semi-submersible support platform was studied. It contains the effect of water mist on the heat absorption and oxygen insulation of diesel pool fires. The applicable parameters of the water mist fire extinguishing system were also determined. Moreover, based on the shielding of the fire source in the engine room and the different requirements for water mist extinguishing parameters, a hierarchical multi-parameter combined high-pressure water mist fire extinguishing system was proposed. In the full-scale experimental engine room model, according to the fire extinguishing experiments for diesel pool fires with different areas, this kind of hierarchical multi-parameter water mist system is very effective on shielded and non-shielded fires. In addition, it is still effective even in a non-closed environment coupled with smoke exhausting.