Compliance with fixed-itinerary systems in water-based parks

A number of studies at land-based parks have indicated that trip information from permit itineraries does not always coincide with actual user behavior. To assess the effectiveness of the fixed-itinerary system at a water-based park, this study examined discrepancies between the itineraries recorded on permits and those reported by overnight users following their visits to Everglades National Park; it also assessed day visitors' reported use of backcountry campsites. Motorboaters were more likely to comply with their permit itinerary than canoeists (76% and 66% compliance rate, respectively). More than one-fourth of day users reported stopping at a backcountry campsite. Respondents reported that sharing campsites with noncomplying campers affected their backcountry experience in either a positive (3%), negative (11%), or neutral (9%) manner.     

Wildland Recreation and Human Waste: A Review of Problems, Practices, and Concerns

It is difficult to make general recommendations that apply to all ecosystems. There is still a relative dearth of studies that allow the manager or visitor to come up with specific practices that are the best for their area. The preferred method of disposal remains to dig a small hole (cat hole) and bury the waste. Other site specific methods are also discussed. Treatment of drinking water has become standard practice for most backcountry travel. With such treatment, there is little evidence currently to suggest that the health hazard to humans is great enough to impose further regulation in areas currently using cat holes.     

Ramifications of solid waste disposal site relocation in urban areas of developing countries: a case study in Tanzania

Sanitary landfilling is considered to be the most appropriate means of final disposal of solid wastes. Currently in Tanzania, the cheapest method of developing a landfill is by making use of natural depressions or former borrow pits and mine pits. This paper examines the impacts associated with the relocation of a waste disposal site from a crude disposal site at Vingunguti to a new landfill site at New MECCO quarry in Kunduchi area, both in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The paper focuses on the fate of scavenging and solid waste recycling which are currently taking place at Vingunguti site and mining as well as food vending activities at the proposed new landfill site. Scavenging and waste recycling were found to be important sources of income for some individuals in the city. Various items collected for recycling were found to be an important source of raw materials for some industries in Dar es Salaam. A total of 94% of all the miners were entirely dependent on stone mining and crushing as a sole means of income generation, and 68% of the miners had practised this activity for between 1 and 9 years. Finally the paper recommends that, selection of a waste disposal site should favour abandoned mines or borrow pits rather than operational ones. It also recommends that, waste recycling and scavenging be accommodated in other stages of the waste stream since they can not be practised at a sanitary landfill.     

Management practices that concentrate visitor activities: camping impact management at Isle Royale National Park,USA

This study assessed campsite conditions and the effectiveness of campsite impact management strategies at Isle Royale National Park, USA. Protocols for assessing indicators of vegetation and soil conditions were developed and applied to 156 campsites and 88 shelters within 36 backcountry campgrounds. The average site was 68 m2 and 83% of sites lost vegetation over areas less than 47 m2. We believe that management actions implemented to spatially concentrate camping activities and reduce camping disturbance have been highly successful. Comparisons of disturbed area/overnight stay among other protected areas reinforces this assertion. These reductions in area of camping disturbance are attributed to a designated site camping policy, limitation on site numbers, construction of sites in sloping terrain, use of facilities, and an ongoing program of campsite maintenance. Such actions are most appropriate in higher use backcountry and wilderness settings.     

Improving visitor management approaches for the changing preferences and behaviours of country park visitors in Hong Kong

This study identified the changing preferences of country park visitors in Hong Kong and the potential for such changes to have further negative impacts on the ecologically sensitive areas of country parks. A questionnaire was used to collect feedback from 644 country park visitors to understand their preferences and visitation patterns. To investigate visitors’ preferences and behaviours and to develop better visitor management strategies, the survey data were compared with studies conducted 20 years ago. The results showed that the most popular nature‐based activities of 20 years ago, namely, picnicking and barbecuing, have significantly declined in popularity, while other activities, namely, nature studies and nature photography, have surged in popularity in recent years. These changes in visitor preferences have directly increased the negative impacts of visitors on country parks as they dispersed away from the high intensity recreation zones to the ecological sensitive areas. This emerging group of country park visitors has not been fully considered in the existing approach to visitor management and may irreversibly impact the ecological value of country parks. In this study, visitor management in Hong Kong's country parks was reviewed based on these research findings, and potential improvements were suggested.     

Solid Waste Management Practices in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia

Solid waste management practices in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia are reviewed. The officials of various municipalities and agencies responsible for collecting and disposing of municipal waste were interviewed. The refuse generation rate found is in the range of 1.61–2.72 kg per capita per day. The refuse composition data indicate a high percentage of glass, metals, and wood. For storage purposes, 0.2-m³ barrels are used in residential areas and 0.75 to 1.50 m³-capacity containers are used in commerical areas. The present solid-waste collection system is labor-intensive, and a significant part of the budget is spent on collection and haul operations. The unit collection and haul cost is much higher than the unit disposal cost of refuse. The direct haul of refuse is the common practice, and the use of transfer stations has not yet been considered. It is also observed that the disposal methods used at these sites are not in line with modern techniques for refuse disposal. Landfilling and combined burning and landfilling are the common disposal methods at all the sites.     

Who Visits a National Park and What do They Get Out of It?: A Joint Visitor Cluster Analysis and Travel Cost Model for Yellowstone National Park

Yellowstone National Park visitor data were obtained from a survey collected for the National Park Service by the Park Studies Unit at the University of Idaho. Travel cost models have been conducted for national parks in the United States; however, this study builds on these studies and investigates how benefits vary by types of visitors who participate in different activities while at the park. Visitor clusters were developed based on activities in which a visitor participated while at the park. The clusters were analyzed and then incorporated into a travel cost model to determine the economic value (consumer surplus) that the different visitor groups received from visiting the park. The model was estimated using a zero-truncated negative binomial regression corrected for endogenous stratification. The travel cost price variable was estimated using both 1/3 and 1/4 the wage rate to test for sensitivity to opportunity cost specification. The average benefit across all visitor cluster groups was estimated at between $235 and $276 per person per trip. However, per trip benefits varied substantially across clusters; from $90 to $103 for the “value picnickers,” to $185–$263 for the “backcountry enthusiasts,” $189–$278 for the “do it all adventurists,” $204–$303 for the “windshield tourists,” and $323–$714 for the “creature comfort” cluster group.     

The consequences of backcountry surface disposal of human waste in an alpine, temperate forest and arid environment

Surface disposal of human waste by the smear method, a suggested but heretofore unexamined technique, was tested in three environments and examined for reductions in fecal mass and fecal indicator bacteria. Substantial reduction in fecal mass was observed after six and fourteen weeks of exposure in all environments, but extensive reduction in fecal indicator bacteria was observed in only the arid and alpine environments. Although surface smears appear favorable to cathole techniques in terms of indicator bacteria reduction, the application of this method is limited by several other factors common to backcountry sanitation situations. It is therefore likely that surface disposal would only be applicable in very remote, low use, alpine and arid settings where lack of soil development precludes the use of catholes and carry-out techniques are otherwise impractical.     

Environmental Management of Human Waste Disposal for Recreational Boating Activities

/ A methodology to estimate the number of pump-out facilities and dump stations required to service human waste disposal for recreational power boating activities in Pennsylvania during the 1994 boating season is described. Study results suggest that a total of 39 additional pump-out stations and 13 dump stations may be required on seven major waterbodies: The Three Rivers Area, Lake Erie/Presque Isle Bay, Raystown Lake, the Susquehanna River, the Delaware River, Lake Wallenpaupack, and the Kinzua Reservoir. Suggestions for improving the methodology are provided. KEY WORDS: Human waste; Recreation; Power boating; Waste facilities; Waste disposal; Pennsylvania     

Perceptions and Behaviors of Indigenous Populations Regarding Illegal Use of Protected Area Resources in East Africa’s Mountain Gorilla Landscape

Illegal activities and use of park resources are the main challenges facing mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei) conservation and the protection of their habitats in the East Africa’s Greater Virunga Transboundary Landscape (GVTL). Indigenous residents around GVTL are considered the primary illegal users of park resources. Despite this, there is limited understanding of the current and past perceptions of indigenous residents living in communities adjacent to two GVTL parks; Volcanoes National Park in Rwanda and Mgahinga Gorilla National Park in Uganda. Equally, there is also limited understanding regarding the actual incidences of illegal activities inside both parks. This paper addresses these gaps. Perception data were collected from indigenous residents living adjacent to both parks. Further, Ranger-based Monitoring (RbM) data from both parks were analyzed to determine actual numbers and types of illegal activities over the 9-year period. Interestingly, findings indicated that residents perceived the prevalence of illegal activities to be decreasing across GVTL. To the contrary, RbM findings indicated that the number of actual illegal activities was increasing significantly, particularly in Volcanoes National Park. The discrepancy found between the two perspectives provides for a discussion of the social biases potentially present in these data, and their implications for management. Results also illuminated the subsistence-related nature of most illegal behaviors and suggest that to reduce illegal activities and local dependency on park resources, park management must work with communities and support them in tapping into alternative livelihoods and finding ways to address community household subsistence needs.     

Capabilities and management utility of recreation impact monitoring programs

A recreation impact monitoring system was developed and applied in 1984–1986 and in 1991 to all backcountry river-accessed campsites within Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area, Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Results suggest that actions implemented by park managers in response to problems identified by the initial survey were highly effective in reducing resource degradation caused by camping. In particular, the elimination of some designated campsites and installation of anchored firegrates reduced the total area of disturbance by 50%. Firegrate installation provided a focal point that increased the concentration of camping activities, allowing peripheral areas to recover. As suggested by predictive models, additional resource degradation caused by increased camping intensities is more than offset by improvements in the condition of areas where use is eliminated. The capabilities and management utility of recreation impact monitoring programs, illustrated by the Delaware Water Gap monitoring program, are also presented and discussed.     

Optimal Location and Management of Waste Disposal Facilities Affecting Ground Water Quality1

ABSTRACT: Numerical simulation of ground water solute transport is combined with linear programming to optimize waste disposal. A discretized form of the equation governing solute transport is included as a set of constraints in a linear program. Two problems are described. First, the management model is used to maximize ground water waste disposal. The model constrains disposal activities so that the quality of local ground water supplies is protected. Parametric programming is shown to be important in evaluating waste disposal tradeoffs at the various facilities. Changes in the velocity field induced by waste water injection cause a nonlinearity in the solute transport equation which is dealt with by employing an iterative procedure. The second problem is aimed at identifying all sites which are suitable for waste disposal in the subsurface. The management model is manipulated so that the optimal value of the dual variables are “unit source impact indicators.” This physical interpretation is valuable in identifying feasible disposal sites. The joint simulation and optimization approach permits the management of complex ground water systems where the aquifer is used simultaneously for waste disposal and water supply.     

Disparities in the provision of public parks in neighbourhoods with varied Latino composition in the Phoenix Metropolitan Area

ABSTRACT

This article examines the provision of public parks in Latino and non-Latino neighbourhoods in the Phoenix Metropolitan Area. Though previous research has examined the socio-spatial distribution of urban parks, few have analysed both accessibility and variations in park features associated with the Latino composition of neighbourhoods. In this study, geographical information systems were employed to assess the availability and accessibility of neighbourhood parks, and Google Earth was used to audit their natural and built environmental features. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Games-Howell post hoc test was applied to examine the hypothesis that park resources are not equitably distributed across neighbourhoods, and that Latino places are disproportionally affected by a suboptimal provision of park space and services. The analysis points to invariance across neighbourhoods in terms of quantity and features of public parks, so the expected systemic pattern of inequality affecting Latino neighbourhoods in Phoenix Metro was not found. The study suggests, however, some areas wherein cities in the Phoenix Metropolitan Area could act to improve the allocation of public park resources and engage the diversity of local populations.     

Policy and practice in Myanmar's protected area system

Myanmar's protected area (PA) system began nearly 150 years ago under royal patronage. Park policies and practices, embodied in 19 pieces of legislation developed sporadically during and after the colonial period. As a result of the FAO-UNDP's Nature Conservation and National Parks Project (1981-1985) the government established the Nature & Wildlife Conservation Division and placed it within the Forest Department as the agency responsible for PA management. As a consequence the number of parks increased from 14 to 33. Myanmar's median park size is less than 50 km(2), but only five parks (15%) are larger than 1000 km(2). Most parks conserve terrestrial habitats; parks encompassing inland wetlands, mangrove, and marine habitats are limited in number and size. Existing PAs unequally represent Myanmar's ecosystems; the Malay Transition, Burmese coast, Burmese Transition and Cardamom Mountains bio-units are under-represented within the system. The effective total PA size (i.e., area of all parks less the area of 13 paper parks) is currently about 2.1%. Budgetary support for parks increased 11% since 1996, but is insufficient to address park needs, particularly in remote parks that are understaffed. Limited education and training of PA staff is a major factor limiting effective park management. Fifty-eight percent of park wardens are educated as foresters, and 42% have university degrees. The average posting in a park is 4 years, which is less than ideal for management continuity. Recommended actions to secure Myanmar's PAs include evaluation and reformulation of policies, increasing representation of Myanmar's habitats within the PA system, management planning, and standardizing protocols for anti-poaching patrols and other forms of law enforcement. Improved leadership training for wardens and range forest officers can also improve park management. Funding for community relations and more integrated management of parks and people can reduce conflicts, while environmental education and outreach activities can provide some needed services. Finally, new ways and means are needed to support these activities. Myanmar's PAs need creative and sustainable means of support, including partnerships with non-government organizations to supplement traditional means of support.     

Coherence between marine and land use planning: public attitudes to landscapes in the context of siting a wind park along the Latvian coast of the Baltic Sea

The aim of this paper is to contribute to coherence in marine, coastal and land use planning and management from the perspective of landscape values. At a time when new sea uses are emerging and marine spatial planning laws and regulations are being adopted, but have not yet been put into practice, research studies are required that provide spatial planners with informed insights concerning public stakeholder attitudes to controversial policies. The undertaken research explored the attitudes of two important social groups (local residents and tourists/recreational users) regarding locating wind parks in the marine and/or terrestrial environment along the Latvian coast of the Baltic Sea. The results of the study indicate that both groups support land-based wind park development versus offshore. Moreover, the visibility of wind turbines influences the willingness of tourists to visit recreation sites and impacts directly on their duration of stay. Research findings indicate that policy makers and spatial planners from both marine and land domains should adopt a broader and more integrated approach when setting priorities and allocating space for development activities where both domains are involved.     

浅析成都市农村生活垃圾分类收运处理的试点经验

为实现成都市农村生活垃圾分类收运处理,本文通过对成都市农村生活垃圾分类收运处理试点区域的实地调研,分析了农村生活垃圾的组分,详细介绍了试点区域垃圾分类方式、收运流程、分类成效和保障措施等,提出一些农村生活垃圾分类收运处理的重要的实践经验。     

Impacts of nutrient additions and digging for human waste disposal in natural environments, Tasmania, Australia

Very little research has been undertaken on the impacts of human toilet waste disposal in non-serviced sites in the wild. The objective of the present project was to determine the relative impacts of the mechanical disturbance of digging during the burial of toilet waste (faeces and toilet paper), and urination, on Tasmanian vegetation types that occur in areas used for wild country camping, in order to develop appropriate guidelines. The mechanical disturbance of digging cat-holes 15 cm deep, typical of those used for toilet disposal in the Tasmanian wild, had largely negative effects on the growth of a few native plant species. These effects were of little or no conservation significance. The nutrient additions simulated by the addition of artificial urine to undug ground and dug ground had largely positive effects on nine distinct types of native vegetation, encouraging the growth of many plant species at many sites, while discouraging the growth of moss at one site. No weed species found at any of the sites were significantly affected by the treatments. Thus, it appears that scattered disposal of urine, even combined with digging, is unlikely to present a major conservation problem in the Tasmania's wild country, and that present guidelines are appropriate, where achievable.     

The implicit price of urban public parks and greenways: a spatial-contextual approach

This paper examines the value residents place on public parks in a mid-sized urban area. The analysis makes a direct contribution to the literature by examining the extent to which spatial and neighbourhood context is related to the house price premium or discount associated with public recreational opportunities, natural resource areas and urban greenways. The analysis shows that the value of public parks and greenways varies across space, neighbourhood context and park type. Community area fixed-effects are included to bolster the findings. The findings indicate that park and greenway investment should be planned and managed contextually in urban areas. Park planners can use these findings to inform public policy debates over park investment and, perhaps, support efforts focused on comprehensive neighbourhood planning.     

The Appropriateness of Snowmobiling in National Parks: An Investigation of the Meanings of Snowmobiling Experiences in Yellowstone National Park

The debate over snowmobiling and other types of motorized recreation in US national parks signals the need for a better understanding of the meanings of these experiences. The fundamental issue facing many parks is whether snowmobiling is an appropriate activity. The matter of appropriateness is anchored in two questions: (1) Does snowmobiling in national parks cause unacceptable biophysical and social impacts? (2) Are snowmobiling experiences consistent with the fundamental purposes of national parks? This article particularly addresses the appropriateness issue and presents the findings of an interpretive study of the meanings of snowmobiling experiences in Yellowstone National Park (YNP). Sixty-five semistructured interviews were conducted with winter visitors who used snowmobiles in the park during the winter season of 1999. Overall, the study findings reveal that visitors on snowmobiles view YNP as a place to experience its wildland attributes, such as natural scenery, geothermal features, and, especially, wildlife. Snowmobiling is perceived as a mode of transportation rather than the experience in and of itself. The results challenge the popular image of snowmobiles as thrill-craft and snowmobilers as thrill-seekers. The study demonstrates that snowmobiling in YNP affords highly meaningful recreational experiences, grounded in appreciating the park’s unique natural features and attributes.     

Visitor impact on backcountry campsites in the Great Smoky Mountains

Over the last decade the Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP) has experienced a tremendous increase in visitation, especially in backcountry camping. In 1976 there were an estimated 117,500 backcountry visitor nights, with a peak of 16,865 visitor nights in April. The high use season extends from March to October. Visitation tends to be concentrated in certain sections of the park and at specific sites. The Appalachian Trail, which includes about 8 percent of the maintained trail mileage, carried 32 percent of the visitor nights in 1976.Campsite disturbance is also concentrated in specific sites and sections of the park. Maximum camping disturbance per km of maintained trail was 3,400 m² for the sites on the Appalachian Trail. Shelter sites have more visitation per site and more total disturbance per site than open campsites, but shelters tend to have less intensive disturbance, such as bare soil, because they concentrate trampling impacts. Visitation levels were strongly correlated with disturbances such as bare soil at open campsites. Visitation was significantly correlated to the number of firepits at shelter sites but not to other types of disturbance. Regressions indicate that for each additional visitor night at a site (annual average), one can expect an additional 9 m² of total disturbance and 1 m²of bare soil. The distance of a site from the nearest road was not significantly correlated with damage or visitation. Elevation was correlated to visitation levels, especially in the case of the shelters. More legal sites and large illegal sites are in mesic forest types. Illegal camping accounted for 10 percent of the total camping disturbance.The data imply that the suggested removal of shelters will require redistribution of visitor use or replacement developments, such as tent platforms, in order to mitigate damage. Zone camping is a possible alternative but presents difficulties because campers may concentrate in certain plant communities and topographic positions.