Performance of adaptive cluster sampling estimators in a multivariate setting

Adaptive cluster sampling has been proven to perform well in a univariate setting, but it may not perform well when there are several parameters of interest. The efficiency of adaptive sampling when there are several variables of interest depends on the relationship of the variables with one another.     

Adjusted two-stage adaptive cluster sampling

An adjusted two-stage sampling procedure is discussed for adaptive cluster sampling where some networks are large and others are small. A two-stage sample is drawn from the large networks and a single-stage sample is drawn from the rest. The simple random sampling (SRS) procedure without replacement is used at the initial stage. An estimator for the population mean along with its properties is discussed.     

Application of adaptive cluster sampling to low-density populations of freshwater mussels

Freshwater mussels appear to be promising candidates for adaptive cluster sampling because they are benthic macroinvertebrates that cluster spatially and are frequently found at low densities. We applied adaptive cluster sampling to estimate density of freshwater mussels at 24 sites along the Cacapon River, WV, where a preliminary timed search indicated that mussels were present at low density. Adaptive cluster sampling increased yield of individual mussels and detection of uncommon species; however, it did not improve precision of density estimates. Because finding uncommon species, collecting individuals of those species, and estimating their densities are important conservation activities, additional research is warranted on application of adaptive cluster sampling to freshwater mussels. However, at this time we do not recommend routine application of adaptive cluster sampling to freshwater mussel populations. The ultimate, and currently unanswered, question is how to tell when adaptive cluster sampling should be used, i.e., when is a population sufficiently rare and clustered for adaptive cluster sampling to be efficient and practical? A cost-effective procedure needs to be developed to identify biological populations for which adaptive cluster sampling is appropriate.     

Rao-Blackwell versions of the Horvitz-Thompson and Hansen-Hurwitz in adaptive cluster sampling

Thompson (1990) introduced the adaptive cluster sampling design and developed two unbiased estimators, the modified Horvitz-Thompson (HT) and Hansen-Hurwitz (HH) estimators, for this sampling design and noticed that these estimators are not a function of the minimal sufficient statistics. He applied the Rao-Blackwell theorem to improve them. Despite having smaller variances, these latter estimators have not received attention because a suitable method or algorithm for computing them was not available. In this paper we obtain closed forms of the Rao-Blackwell versions which can easily be computed. We also show that the variance reduction for the HH estimator is greater than that for the HT estimator using Rao-Blackwell versions. When the condition for extra samples is 0$$ " align="middle" border="0"> , one can expect some Rao-Blackwell improvement in the HH estimator but not in the HT estimator. Two examples are given.     

Comparison between Hansen-Hurwitz and Horvitz-Thompson estimators for adaptive cluster sampling

Thompson (1990) introduced the adaptive cluster sampling design. This sampling design has been shown to be a useful sampling method for parameter estimation of a clustered and scattered population (Roesch, 1993; Smith et al., 1995; Thompson and Seber, 1996). Two estimators, the modified Hansen-Hurwitz (HH) and Horvitz-Thompson (HT) estimators, are available to estimate the mean or total of a population. Empirical results from previous researches indicate that the modified HT estimator has smaller variance than the modified HH estimator. We analytically compare the properties of these two estimators. Some results are obtained in favor of the modified HT estimator so that practitioners are strongly recommended to use the HT estimator despite easiness of computations for the HH estimator.     

Identifying Habitat Variables Important to the Rare Columbia Spotted Frog in Utah (U.S.A.): an Information-Theoretic Approach

Abstract:  We identified habitat associations of the rare Columbia spotted frog (  Rana luteiventris ). We used an information-theoretic approach that encouraged careful consideration of previous studies, demanded a priori formulation of hypotheses and models, and provided interpretable results while avoiding some criticisms of traditional statistical analyses. We formulated hypotheses about habitat associations based on conductivity, emergent vegetation, littoral zone depth, pond hydrology, and water temperature. We modeled hypothesized associations with logistic regression and used Akaike's information criterion to quantify evidence for models, weigh the relative importance of each habitat variable, and select predictive models. Although variable, results suggested that spotted frogs are more likely to occur in ponds that do not shrink in size seasonally, maintain relatively constant seasonal water temperature, and have high emergent vegetation cover. Associations we identified will assist actions in Utah that may be critical to local persistence of spotted frogs. Moreover, this approach for identifying associations has great potential for other rare species.     

A review of adaptive cluster sampling: 1990–2003

Adaptive cluster sampling (ACS) is an adaptive sampling scheme which operates under the rule that when the observed value of an initially selected sampling unit satisfies some condition of interest, C, other additional units in some pre-defined accompanying neighborhood are also added to the sample. In turn, if any of these additional units satisfy C, then their corresponding unit neighborhoods are added to the sample as well, and so on. This process stops when no additional units satisfying C are encountered. This paper will provide a review of the major developments and issues in ACS since its introduction by Thompson (1990) [Journal of the American Statistical Association, 85, 1050–1059].     

Asymptotics in adaptive cluster sampling

In this article we consider asymptotic properties of the Horvitz-Thompson and Hansen-Hurwitz types of estimators under the adaptive cluster sampling variants obtained by selecting the initial sample by simple random sampling without replacement and by unequal probability sampling with replacement. We develop an asymptotic framework, which basically assumes that the number of units in the initial sample, as well as the number of units and networks in the population tend to infinity, but that the network sizes are bounded. Using this framework we prove that under each of the two variants of adaptive sampling above mentioned, both the Horvitz-Thompson and Hansen-Hurwitz types of estimators are design-consistent and asymptotically normally distributed. In addition we show that the ordinary estimators of their variances are also design-consistent estimators.     

Estimator bias and efficiency for adaptive cluster sampling with order statistics and a stopping rule

Practical problems facing adaptive cluster sampling with order statistics (acsord) are explored using Monte Carlo simulation for three simulated fish populations and two known waterfowl populations. First, properties of an unbiased Hansen-Hurwitz (HH) estimator and a biased alternative Horvitz-Thompson (HT) estimator are evaluated. An increase in the level of population aggregation or the initial sample size increases the efficiencies of the two acsord estimators. For less aggregated fish populations, the efficiencies decrease as the order statistic parameter r (the number of units about which adaptive sampling is carried out) increases; for the highly aggregated fish and waterfowl populations, they increase with r. Acsord is almost always more efficient than simple random sampling for the highly aggregated populations. Positive bias is observed for the HT estimator, with the maximum bias usually occurring at small values of r. Secondly, a stopping rule at the Sth iteration of adaptive sampling beyond the initial sampling unit was applied to the acsord design to limit the otherwise open-ended sampling effort. The stopping rule induces relatively high positive bias to the HH estimator if the level of the population aggregation is high, the stopping level S is small, and r is large. The bias of HT is not very sensitive to the stopping rule and its bias is often reduced by the stopping rule at smaller values of r. For more aggregated populations, the stopping rule often reduces the efficiencies of the estimators compared to the non-stopping-rule scheme, but acsord still remains more efficient than simple random sampling. Despite its bias and lack of theoretical grounding, the HT estimator is usually more efficient than the HH estimator. In the stopping rule case, the HT estimator is preferable, because its bias is less sensitive to the stopping level.     

Habitat Split as a Cause of Local Population Declines of Amphibians with Aquatic Larvae

Abstract:  Most amphibian species have biphasic life histories and undergo an ontogenetic shift from aquatic to terrestrial habitats. In deforested landscapes, streams and forest fragments are frequently disjunct, jeopardizing the life cycle of forest-associated amphibians with aquatic larvae. We tested the impact of habitat split—defined as human-induced disconnection between habitats used by different life-history stages of a species—on four forest-associated amphibian species in a severely fragmented landscape of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. We surveyed amphibians in forest fragments with and without streams (referred to as wet and dry fragments, respectively), including the adjacent grass-field matrix. Our comparison of capture rates in dry fragments and nearby streams in the matrix allowed us to evaluate the number of individuals that engaged in high-risk migrations through nonforested habitats. Adult amphibians moved from dry fragments to matrix streams at the beginning of the rainy season, reproduced, and returned at the end of the breeding period. Juveniles of the year moved to dry fragments along with adults. These risky reproductive migrations through nonforested habitats that expose individuals to dehydration, predation, and other hazards may cause population declines in dry fragments. Indeed, capture rates were significantly lower in dry fragments compared with wet fragments. Declining amphibians would strongly benefit from investments in the conservation and restoration of riparian vegetation and corridors linking breeding and nonbreeding areas.     

Relationships between Human Disturbance and Wildlife Land Use in Urban Habitat Fragments

Abstract: Habitat remnants in urbanized areas typically conserve biodiversity and serve the recreation and urban open‐space needs of human populations. Nevertheless, these goals can be in conflict if human activity negatively affects wildlife. Hence, when considering habitat remnants as conservation refuges it is crucial to understand how human activities and land uses affect wildlife use of those and adjacent areas. We used tracking data (animal tracks and den or bed sites) on 10 animal species and information on human activity and environmental factors associated with anthropogenic disturbance in 12 habitat fragments across San Diego County, California, to examine the relationships among habitat fragment characteristics, human activity, and wildlife presence. There were no significant correlations of species presence and abundance with percent plant cover for all species or with different land‐use intensities for all species, except the opossum (Didelphis virginiana), which preferred areas with intensive development. Woodrats (Neotoma spp.) and cougars (Puma concolor) were associated significantly and positively and significantly and negatively, respectively, with the presence and prominence of utilities. Woodrats were also negatively associated with the presence of horses. Raccoons (Procyon lotor) and coyotes (Canis latrans) were associated significantly and negatively and significantly and positively, respectively, with plant bulk and permanence. Cougars and gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) were negatively associated with the presence of roads. Roadrunners (Geococcyx californianus) were positively associated with litter. The only species that had no significant correlations with any of the environmental variables were black‐tailed jackrabbits (Lepus californicus) and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). Bobcat tracks were observed more often than gray foxes in the study area and bobcats correlated significantly only with water availability, contrasting with results from other studies. Our results appear to indicate that maintenance of habitat fragments in urban areas is of conservation benefit to some animal species, despite human activity and disturbance, as long as the fragments are large.     

Reproductive Investment of a Lacertid Lizard in Fragmented Habitat

Abstract:  We studied the effect of habitat fragmentation on female reproductive investment in a widespread lacertid lizard (  Psammodromus algirus ) in a mixed-forest archipelago of deciduous and evergreen oak woods in northern Spain. We captured gravid females in fragments (≤10 ha) and forests (≥ 200 ha) and brought them to the laboratory, where they laid their eggs. We incubated the eggs and released the first cohort of juveniles into the wild to monitor their survival. Females from fragments produced a smaller clutch mass and laid fewer eggs (relative to mean egg mass) than females of similar body size from forests. Lizards did not trade larger clutches for larger offspring, however, because females from fragments did not lay larger eggs (relative to their number) than females from forests. Among the first cohort of juveniles, larger egg mass and body size increased the probability of recapture the next year. Thus, fragmentation decreased the relative fecundity of lizards without increasing the quality of their offspring. Reduced energy availability, increased predation risk, and demographic stochasticity could decrease the fitness of lizards in fragmented habitats, which could contribute to the regional scarcity of this species in agricultural areas sprinkled with small patches of otherwise suitable forest. Our results show that predictable reduction of reproductive output with decreasing size of habitat patches can be added to the already known processes that cause inverse density dependence at low population numbers.     

太子河洛氏鱥幼鱼栖息地适宜度评估

基于对太子河流域鱼类及栖息地的调查研究,选择该流域的优势种洛氏鱥(Phoxinus lagowskii)作为指示生物,建立洛氏鱥幼鱼对水深、流速、溶解氧、总溶解颗粒物和河岸带植被指数的栖息地适宜度曲线,并借鉴河道内流量增量法计算各采样点河段的洛氏鱥幼鱼栖息地适宜度指数。结果表明:洛氏鱥幼鱼栖息地适宜度指数在太子河上游较高(>0.5),中游次之(0.2-0.5),下游较低(<0.2)。洛氏鱥幼鱼栖息地适宜度指数与10项栖息地调查指标和土地利用类型的相关性分析表明:太子河流域内限制洛氏鱥幼鱼生存的因素不是水文条件,而是河流水质及河岸带等环境因素;洛氏鱥幼鱼栖息地适宜度指数受人类活动影响较大,随着太子河中下游人类开发强度加大,洛氏鱥栖息地质量呈下降趋势。     

上海城市绿地生境中春季大型土壤动物群落结构研究

2006年春季对上海市区不同绿地生境进行采样,其中包括学校:华东师范大学校区绿化乔木类型(A),草地类型(B);居住区:师大一村草地类型(C);路旁绿地:浦东生态林乔木类型(D);公园:上海植物园乔木类型(E),草地类型(F);工业区:宝钢乔木类型 (G),草地类型(H);废弃地:南汇老港垃圾填埋场乔木类型(I),共获得大型土壤动物1 930只,分别隶属于3门8纲18目.研究结果表明:大型土壤动物群落优势类群为:中腹足目、等足目、后孔寡毛目、膜翅目,常见类群为鞘翅目、近孔寡毛目、半翅目、蜘蛛目、石蜈蚣目,其余均为稀有类群.不同城市绿地生境中土壤动物群落组成和个体数各异.群落-密度指数IDG和群落复杂性指数C比Shannon-Wiener指数H'更能体现群落的复杂性与多样性, 且能修正不同类群个体数对多样性的影响.对大型土壤动物群落进行聚类和排序的结果显示,9种城市绿地生境可以分为6大类:浦东路旁绿地、植物园及工业区乔木类型,植物园及工业区的草地类型,居住区草地类型,校园乔木类型,校园草地类型,废弃地乔木类型.     

大熊猫迁居碧峰峡新生境的适应能力研究

2003年10月至2005年10月,对21只圈养于四川卧龙和3只圈养于蜂桶寨自然保护区的大熊猫迁居到雅安碧峰峡全新生境,并以散放养方式保护的大熊猫种群的适应能力进行了研究.环境年平均气温为13.9℃±7.5℃,夏季(6～8月)较炎热(22.3℃±3.8℃),冬季(12～2月)较寒冷(4.8℃±3.9℃);动物对竹子取食秋季最少(5.9kg±1.3kg),冬季最多(8.1kg±2.0kg),5月为次高峰期(8.0kg±1.5kg),喜食竹类为刺竹→苦竹→水竹;动物平均日活动时间6.5h,活动节律和时间与卧龙比较有极显著的改变(P<0.01,N=24);动物对环境、食物等的改变有较强的适应能力,约需3～6mo;但完全适应自然气候等因素的改变则需1a;疾病的发生频率依次为:消化道疾病、皮肤病、蛔虫感染、呼吸道疾病、脑血管疾病等;除气候湿热、土壤粘结、日照偏少、风雨雷电较多等自然因素外,动物在生理、行为、采食、排泄、抗病力及生长发育等各方面基本正常.图4表2参22     

土壤样品中四溴双酚A和六溴环十二烷的测定

建立了LC-MS/MS法同时测定土壤样品中四溴双酚A(Tetrabromobisphenol A,TBBPA)和六溴环十二烷(Hexabromocyclododecanes,HBCDs)的分析方法.样品经索氏抽提后,采用去活化硅胶柱进行净化.TBBPA、α-HBCD、β-HBCD和γ-HBCD的方法检出限分别为0.0315 ng.g-1、0.767 ng.g-1、0.197 ng.g-1和0.163 ng.g-1,方法加标回收率为59.0%—69.4%,可用于土壤样品中痕量TBBPA和HBCDs的测定.经过严格的质量控制,采用本方法对某郊区土壤样品进行了测定,其TBBPA和HBCDs的含量均在pg.g-1量级.     

Habitat selection models to account for seasonal persistence in radio telemetry data

Models for the analysis of habitat selection data incorporate covariates in an independent multinomial selections model (McCracken et al. 1998) Ramsey and Usner 2003 and an extension of that model to include a persistence parameter (2003). In both cases, all parameters are assumed to be fixed through time. Radio telemetry data collected for habitat selection studies typically consist of animal relocations through time, suggesting the need for an extension to these models. We use a Bayesian approach that allows for the habitat selection probabilities, persistence parameter, or both, to change with season. These extensions are particularly important when movement patterns are expected to differ seasonally and/or when availabilities of habitats change throughout the study period due to weather or migration. We implement and compare the models using radio telemetry data for westslope cutthroat trout in two streams in eastern Oregon.     

草海国家级自然保护区冬季主要水鸟群落结构与生境的关系

于2011年12月至2012年2月对草海湿地国家级自然保护区冬季主要水鸟进行调查,结果表明:(1)共记录草海主要越冬水鸟30种,隶属于6目10科17属,区系上以古北型与全北型居多;(2)雁形目水鸟种类与数量均占优势,白骨顶(Fulica atra)、赤颈鸭(Anas penelope)、斑头雁(Anser indicus)、赤麻鸭(Tadorna ferruginea)、赤膀鸭(Anas strepera)5种水鸟优势度均达10%以上,黑颈鹤(Grus nigricollis)和灰鹤(Grus grus)等珍稀水鸟也具一定的种群数量;(3)5种草海典型生境栖息的水鸟种类与数量存在显著差异(Kruskal-Wallis H Test:n=30,!2=16.1893,P=0.003),浅水区是水鸟多样性最丰富的区域,多样性指数(H'=1.079)和均匀性指数(J'=0.804)均最高,而耕地最低(H'=0.345;J'=0.493);(4)群落聚类显示,草海主要水鸟可分为7类伴生群落,不同群落在不同生境中分布存在一定差异。     

大别山多枝尖山区林下植物种间联结性研究

采用通过X2统计量检验,共同出现百分率（AC）和和联结系数（PC）3个指标分别分析了多枝尖山区林下主要植物的种间联结特征。结果表明：13个灌木植物中满山红Rhododendron mariesii和山霉Rubus corchorifolius、粉花绣线菊Spiraea japonica之间、映山红Rhododendron simsii与箬竹Arundo donax以及满山红和映山红之间正联结极显著性（P〈0.01）,而菝葜Smilax china和满山红、菝葜和五味子Schizandrae fructus、绿叶胡枝子Lespedeza buergeri和三桠乌药Lindera obtusiloba,绿叶胡枝子和映山红、满山红和五味子之间呈正联结达到显著水平（P〈0.05）;17个草本植物中林荫千里光Senecio nemorensis和苔草Carex sp之间负联结极显著（P〈0.01）,冷水花Pilea cadiere与苔草以及芒草Miscanthus sp和求米草Oplismenus undulatifolius之间负联结达到显著水平（P〈0.05）,冷水花与堇菜Viola verecunda以及野青茅Deyeuxia arundinacea、求米草与委陵菜Potentilla chinensis3个种对间呈正联结极显著（P〈0.01）。多枝尖山区林下灌木和草本植物的种间联结性较为松散,物种的生态习性、群落环境、群落演替进程和上层植物的影响等因素可能是形成该区种间联结特征的主要原因。