Review,assessment and recommendations on environmental policies in Western China

Reviewing the existing environmental policies in Western China,we find that:in time sequence,the characteristics of China's western environmental policies shift from"development drive governance"to the full implementation of environmental protection and construction;and in spatial sequence,the ecological,social,and economic development of Western China reach to coordination through the nature reserve setting,ecological migrants,fiscal transfer payment and differentiated ecological environmental policies.Due to the implementation of the policies and projects,environmental degradation trends in the western ecological environment were alleviated significantly,the living conditions of farmers and herdsmen were improved,and many successful experiences were explored.However,future ecological environmental construction in Western China requires further improvement in integrated planning,eco-compensation mechanism,and policy assessment.This paper concludes with specific recommendations such as drawing up ecological environment construction planning,strengthening environmental law enforcement and incentive mechanisms,improving policy assessment and scientific support,enhancing environmental protection capacity,improving eco-compensation mechanism,and refining the environmental policies for key areas.     

中国环境规制政策工具的比较与选择——基于贝叶斯模型平均(BMA)方法的实证研究

改革开放以来,中国政府逐步构建起了命令—控制型、市场激励型、公众参与型和自愿行动型"四维一体"的环境政策工具体系。针对不同政策类型工具的有效性,很多学者已经运用多种方法进行了大量研究,但大多数学者只关注其中某一种工具的治理效果,同时考虑所有政策工具效果的文献并不多见。本文首次运用贝叶斯模型平均(BMA)方法实证分析了不同类型环境政策工具在当前中国环境治理体系下的相对贡献程度,实证结果表明:命令—控制型工具和市场激励型工具仍然是当前中国治理环境污染最为有效的政策工具,公众参与型工具和自愿行动型工具的有效性相对较差。基于此,本文的政策建议是:首先,中国政府不仅需要构建完善的环保法律法规体系,更需要加大环保执法投入,提升环保执法的主动性;其次,中国政府应该进一步完善市场激励型工具,建立更加弹性化的排污收费标准和更为严格的排污惩罚制度,推动排污权交易制度更广泛地实施;再次,积极推动社会公众参与环境保护,降低社会公众的参与成本,使得社会公众能更加便捷地参与环境治理;最后,积极鼓励非政府组织、企业发起自愿性环保项目,对于推动环保标准的提升和环保法律法规的逐步完善,加强居民、企业的环境保护意识具有重要意义。因此,全社会环境问题的治理是一个系统性工程,必须采取相应的措施,充分运用命令—控制、市场激励、公众参与、自愿行动等正式和非正式的环境治理措施,形成一个有机、有序的环境治理体系,才能提升所有环境规制政策工具的有效性,促进经济社会可持续发展。     

环境司法专门化视阈下环境法庭之检视与完善

随着环境问题日益凸显,我国积极推进环境司法专门化进程,从最高人民法院到基层人民法院初步形成了具有中国特色的环境法庭体系。这一体系由环境保护审判庭、环境保护合议庭、环境保护巡回法庭以及为数不多的基层环境保护派出法庭构成。目前的环境法庭主要采用三加一模式、三合一模式、二合一模式以及单一模式等四种审理方式,在缓解环境案件审判压力、公正审理环境案件、推进环境公益诉讼、提高环境司法水平等方面发挥了一定的作用。但同时亦应注意到,现有的环境法庭存在诸多问题:基层人民法院缺少法定权限,中级以上人民法院缺少设立环境法庭的程序性依据,致使法律依据不足;缺乏合理的机构建制,级别管辖和地域管辖制度不甚科学;受案范围有限和受害者起诉意愿不足,致使案源不足;特别程序缺失,监测评估机构缺乏中立性,审判人员专业性不强,致使支持保障机制不健全。为此,应从如下几个方面完善我国的环境法庭:首先,为环境法庭建设提供明确的法律依据,规范环境法庭的设立、职责定位及基本权限等事项,将环境法庭建设全面纳入法制轨道;其次,健全环境法庭体系,着重健全环境法庭审级设置,同时完善地域管辖;再次,改进审判模式,健全多审合一程序;再次,拓宽案件来源,合理确定环境公益诉讼的起诉主体,扩大受案范围,完善鼓励起诉机制;最后,完善支持保障机制,针对一审程序设立专业陪审员,针对二审程序设立专家委员会。     

Effect of lifestyle changes and consumption patterns on environmental impact: a comparison study of Pakistan and China

Increased economic development and industrialization put strain on environment, hence causing pollution and destroying ecosystem. Generally, many different factors affect the environment. These factors include GHG emissions, deforestation, and others. These are all related to human activities on Earth. Other factors that affect environment include population, consumption patterns, and changing life styles of people due to increased income. This study involves the comparison analysis of Pakistan and China on the basis of environmental impact caused by some major driving factors. China is the second largest CO₂ emitter in the world with a population of 1.37 billion in 2016 and the second largest economy in the world. Pakistan is ranked as 40th on the basis of nominal GDP. Both the countries observed noticeable growth in economic development for over 55 years, i.e. 1960–2016. This study identifies how population, affluence, consumption, and emissions as the major factors affect environmental pollution and use ImPACT equation, or I = PACT, to calculate the environmental impact and to determine which factors affect the environment the most. The study suggests that the people of both China and Pakistan have experienced increased income for the past 50 years and this increase has led to the changes in their lifestyles, from suitable clothing and quality food to comfortable living and increased energy consumption, thus affecting environment.     

Strategic Environmental Assessment： A New Tool for Ecological Urbanization of Coastal Cities in China

Recently, there has been growing concerns about environmental issues related to urbanization in China. The intense natural resources utilization and increasing population has brought great pressure, especially in coastal areas, consequently affecting the sustainable development of coastal cities. In 2002, Environmental Impact Assessment Act （EIA Act） was enacted in China. Environmental impact assessment targeted at planning, one level of strategic environmental assessment （SEA）, thus became a legislative requirement. This paper considers SEA to be one of the important approaches not only to control coastal pollution, but also to conserve coastal ecosystems and finally to achieve sustainable development during urbanization, thus it will be a set an example for other areas of China. The experience of SEA in Xiamen, a coastal city in southeast China, illustrates the potentials of SEA. This paper first briefly introduces the concept and potentials of SEA, then compares two SEA cases and a project EIA case in Xiamen, and finally identifies the key characteristics of SEA.     

我国建材行业环境标志制度实施及意义

随着我要环境标志制度的实施。自1994年以来我要建材行业环境标志认证有了长足发展．据我国环境标志产品认证委员会秘书处数据。我国建材行业近200家企业的550多种产品获得环境标志认证．其产品涵盖了建材行业的各个方面。其中约有40多家企业近60个建筑涂料企业的产品、50家人造板材企业80多种产品、30余家粘合剂企业等建材行业产口获得环境标志产口认证。这对我国建材行业绩构调整具有十分重要的现实意义。     

Income Growth, Urbanization, Changing Life Style and Energy Requirements in China

This paper aims to estimate the effects of changing life style and consumption demands driven by income growth and urbanization on increase of energy requirements in China, and es-timate the impacts of improvement in household consumption on mitigating energy requirements towards 2020, based on input-out-put analysis and scenarios simulation approach. The result shows that energy requirement per capita has increased by 159% for urban residents and 147% for rural residents from 1995 to 2004. Growth in household consumption driven by income growth and urbanization may induce a successive increase in energy require-ments in future. Per capita energy requirements of urban residents will increase by 240% during 2002-2015 and 330% during 2002-2020. Urbanization might lead to 0.75 billion ton of increment of energy requirements in 2020. About 45%-48% of total energy requirements in China might be a consequence of residents’ life styles and the economic activities to support consumption demands in 2020. Under low-carbon life style scenario, per capita energy requirements of urban residents may decline to 97% in 2015 and 92% in 2020 in contrast with baseline scenario. That implies that China needs to pay a great attention to developing green low-carbon life style in order to realize mitigation target towards 2020.     

当代中国的环境政策:形成、特点与评价

当代中国环境政策的形成是在1972年联合国人类环境会议后开始起步。1979年翻2006年得翻快速发展。中国环境政策十分注意吸取发达国家的经验教训，密切结合中国国情，其主要特点有：①充分运用命令-控制手段；⑦努力推动筹集环保资金；③着力明确谁应承担保护环境的责任；④不断鼓励“防治结合”和“综合利用”；⑤较早体现对外开放和国际合作。30多年来，中国环境政策逐步演变并深化：地位从基本国策到可持续发展战略。重点从偏重污染控制翻污染控制与生态保护并重，方法从未端治理翻谭头控制，范围从点谭治理到流域与区域的综合治理。手段从以行政命令为主导翻以法律、经济手段为主导。文章最后介绍了国际社会对于这些政策的基本评价，展望了中国环境政策的未来。     

中国西部环境政策回顾及建议

西部生态环境脆弱而屏障作用显著.在新一轮西部大开发的背景下,对过去西部地区生态环境保护与管理政策进行回顾和总结,辨析其实施成效与存在的问题,并进一步提出相关政策建议,对今后西部国土开发和生态环境保护具有重要意义.本文通过对我国西部生态环境政策进行梳理和分析,发现:①西部地区的生态环境政策在不同阶段具有不同特征,改革开放以前(1949-1977年)主要是开发带动治理,改革开放-西部大开发之前(1978-1999年)逐渐由开发转变为以保护为主,西部大开发十年期间(2000-2010年)开始全面实施生态环境保护和建设;②在空间上,通过自然保护区设置、生态移民、财政转移支付和差别化的生态环境政策,在一定程度上促进了生态、社会、经济的协调发展;③在各项政策和工程实施下,西部生态环境退化趋势得到明显缓解,同时,农牧民的生活条件和经济收入得到较大提高,在生态环境治理、全社会参与、环保投资等方面探索出诸多成功经验;④生态环境政策还存在一些亟待解决的问题,如生态环境建设多以各个部门主导,缺乏统一规划和政策协调,有些政策缺乏充足的科学依据,生态补偿政策缺乏总体还需进一步完善,环境政策实施效果评估,反馈环节还较薄弱等.针对这些问题,本文最后提出建议.     

中国战略性海洋新兴产业的发展对策探讨

海洋经济已跨入以高新技术引领的新时代,以海洋高新技术为首要特征的战略性海洋新兴产业成为各国争相抢占的科技制高点.本文在界定战略性海洋新兴产业内涵的基础上,分析我国战略性海洋新兴产业发展的现状,找出其在公众认识、政策体系、自主创新能力、资金投入以及人才储备等方面存在的主要问题,进而提出通过提高公众对战略性海洋新兴产业发展重要性的认识,营造促进其发展的良好氛围;建立和完善战略性海洋新兴产业发展的政策体系和协调机制,形成支持战略性海洋新兴产业发展的长效机制;提高海洋科技的自主创新能力,加速科技成果的转化,打造一批具有国际竞争力的战略性海洋新兴产业开发区;加大对战略性海洋新兴产业的资金投入,建立多渠道的有效的投融资体制以及着力培养和引进具备较强适应能力、创新能力和竞争力的高层次人才,使其成为发展战略性海洋新兴产业的生力军等措施促进我国战略性海洋新兴产业的发展,借以推动我国海洋经济实现跨越式发展.     

Characteristics of Carbon Emission in China and Analysis on Its Cause

From the history of human economic development, it is known that there is a close relationship between economic development and environment quality. Thus, in this study a factor decomposition model of carbon emission in China is built and the contributions that economic scale, industrial structure, and carbon emission intensity make to carbon emission quantitatively from 1990 to 2005 are analyzed, in other words—scale effect, structural effect, and technical effect—using the decomposition method of average distribution cushion which is based on the environmental Kuznets curves model is studied. The result suggests that the average of the effect changes of carbon emission in China is 19.55%, the effects brought by economic scale, industrial structure, and carbon emission intensity are 15.76%, −0.86%, and 4.65%, respectively. In general, the relation between carbon emission and China's economy was more like an “N” curve; Economy scale is a primary drive factor and has incremental effect to carbon emission. Since otherness of different industry is getting bigger, the industrial restructure has certain decremental effect to carbon emission, but the restrictive function is not obvious, the industrial structure still need to be further optimized; the technical effect is positive and its volatility is large. From the perspective of reducing carbon emission, the current technology has not played to its advantages. This study will promote the understanding of the theory about the relationship between carbon emission and economy development and provide reference value by all means to the adjustment of industrial development.     

西部大开发十五年环境效率评价及其影响因素分析

西部大开发政策实施以来,西部地区实现了快于东部和中部的经济增长。正确认识西部地区经济增长中的环境成本,评价西部地区的环境效率具有重要意义。本文运用考虑非期望产出的超效率SBM模型测算了2000—2014年西部大开发以来的环境效率。研究发现:西部地区环境效率偏低,处于相对无效状态。西部地区环境效率明显低于传统效率,经济增长付出了较高的环境代价。西部大开发以来传统效率与环境效率之间的差距呈现先扩大后缩小的"倒U"型走势变化。西部地区省份环境效率在全国排名靠后,各省份的环境效率呈现出差异化的发展态势,其中重庆和四川排名不断提升,新疆排名逐步回落,内蒙古和广西在西部地区排名相对靠前且比较稳定,云南和陕西一直处于中间水平,贵州、甘肃、青海、宁夏排名相对靠后。西部地区环境效率2000—2003年上升,2004—2010年不断下降,2010—2014年趋于平稳。西部地区环境效率低于东部地区且差距大,也低于中部地区和全国平均水平。通过收敛性检验发现,西部地区各省份间的环境效率差距呈现先缩小后扩大的趋势;西部地区与东部地区间的环境效率差距逐渐扩大,与中部地区间的环境效率差距先扩大后缩小。本文同时采用了Tobit模型进行面板回归,实证分析了西部地区环境效率的影响因素。结果表明:经济发展水平、科学技术水平、能源消费结构、环保投资力度对西部地区环境效率具有显著影响;产业结构变化和对外开放程度对西部地区环境效率影响不显著;西部地区存在环境效率的库兹涅茨曲线。     

中国环境审计研究10年回顾:轨迹、问题与前瞻

国家审计署2008-2012年审计工作发展规划将资源环境审计作为六大审计类型之一,同时在2009年9月出台<关于加强资源环境审计工作的意见>(以下简称<意见>),这必将极大促进我国环境审计理论与实践的发展.在历史即将翻开新的一页之时,有必要对我国环境审计理论与实践研究轨迹进行系统总结和梳理,发掘其规律、问题,以利于未来环境审计研究.本文以发表于1999-2009年的689篇环境审计论文为样本,从发表时间、期刊类型、研究内容、研究方法、推动力量、学术影响力及研究人才队伍培养等方面系统描述我国近十年环境审计研究的轨迹.结果发现,我国环境审计研究的层面不够深入,研究方向存在偏颇性,研究视角显片面性.未来的环境审计研究应更加紧密围绕全球环境问题和国际环境会计的最新实,整合生态学、环境科学、会计学及审计学界力量,倡导研究视角的多元化,更加注重民间环境审计、环境审计的鉴证职能、生态绩效的评价审核等研究.     

The Impact of Perceptual and Situational Factors on Environmental Communication: A Study of Citizen Engagement in China

This study applied a situational approach to understanding an environmental problem: PM2.5 (its resulted haze and smog air pollution) in China. Based on a national sample of 374 citizens living in China, it tested a situational model of problem solving and extended it by adding citizens’ environmental engagement behaviour as an immediate consequence of their communicative action. Results of a structural equation modelling analysis supported all the causal links in the conceptual model. Moreover, communicative action significantly mediated the relationship between referent criterion and environmental engagement. Problem recognition, constraint recognition, and involvement recognition did not influence environmental engagement directly, but exerted their significant indirect impact via two key mediators in the model: situational motivation in problem solving and communicative action in problem solving. Theoretical and practical implications of the present study were discussed.     

Study Progress and Trends of Strategic Environmental Assessment in China

Strategic environmental assessment （SEA） in China has developed rapidly since it was introduced into China in the 1990s. Chinese government promulgated the Environmental Impact Assessment Law of China （hereinafter referred to as the EIA Law） in 2002. In this law, it is stipulated clearly that regional and sector plans should be assessed. Through investigating materials and analyzing literatures, this article analyses the practical and academic study achievements of SEA in China that have been achieved since the EIA Law was implemented, probes into the current situation of the main level of SEA in China-plan EIA, then summarizes the development characteristics, and eventually, puts forward the development trends of SEA in China. The research conclusions can offer the foundations for comprehending systematically the progress of SEA in China.     

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans pollution in China: sources, environmental levels and potential human health impacts

This review represents an assessment of the pollution status of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) in China (the mainland, Hong Kong and Taiwan). During the past decades, seven PCDD/Fs pollution hotspots have been found: (a). Ya-er Lake, Hubei Province, with 'total PCDD/Fs' level reaching 177,427 pg g(-1) (dry weight) in lake sediments; (b). Chinese Schistosomiasis affected areas of Jiangxi Province with 33,660 pg g(-1) in soil; (c). e-waste recycling area of Yangtze River Delta, with 2726 pg g(-1) in paddy soil; (d). e-waste recycling area of Guiyu (eastern part of Guangdong Province), with 967,500 pg g(-1) in mixture of burnt residue and soil (the highest level among all hotspots); (e). Pearl River Delta with 2630 pg g(-1) in coastal sediment. (f). Kwun Tong, Victoria Harbour, Hong Kong with 10,999 pg g(-1) in coastal sediment; and (g). southern Taiwan with 606,000 pg g(-1) in soil near the vicinity of a pentachlorophenol manufacturing factory. The main sources of PCDD/Fs in China were formed from impurities during the production of polychlorophenol, hexachlorobenzene, polychlorinated biphenyls, organic chlorinated pesticide and triclosan. In addition, sources of PCDD/Fs included municipal waste incineration, mineral fuel usage, open burning of electronic waste and crop residues, industrial waste discharge and vehicle exhaust emission. Due to potential human health risks from long-term exposure to PCDD/Fs at these hotspots, body loadings of these contaminants should be monitored.     

中国省域环境效率影响因素的实证研究——基于社会嵌入视角和多层统计模型的分析

基于环境效率影响因素理论和社会嵌入性理论,概括了环境效率影响因素的社会嵌入性的认知嵌入、关系嵌入、结构嵌入、文化嵌入、政治嵌入。以资源环境经济因素为层一变量,以社会嵌入性因素为层二变量,运用多层统计模型解决了中国省域环境效率影响因素的作用路径问题;利用中国省域的1998年到2013年每个省的资本存量、人力资本、能源消耗、用水量、污染排放指数、国内总产值数据,基于超效DEA方法,测算了中国省域的环境效率;实证分析了嵌入性视角下中国省域环境效率的影响因素。结果表明:中国省域之间的环境效率存在较大的差异;环境效率的整体差异中,高达90%的份额是由各省环境效率的社会嵌入性不同造成的。显著性直接影响因素为:人均GDP、物流关系嵌入正向影响环境效率,第二产业比重、节能性政治嵌入负向影响环境效率;显著性间接影响因素为:自然保护性政治嵌入增加将削弱第二产业比重与环境效率之间的负向关系,资金流关系嵌入增加将加强天然气使用比重与环境效率之间的正向关系;既是显著性直接影响又是显著性间接影响因素为:认知嵌入既能直接正向影响环境效率又能削弱天然气使用比重与环境效率之间的正向关系。因此,中国在解决环境问题时,不仅要考虑资源环境经济因素,还要考虑社会场景因素(嵌入性因素)对环境效率的影响,并且协调好二者之间的关系,才能实现环境效率的长期稳定提高。此外,本文也是建立适合社会嵌入性理论实证分析方法的一种尝试,实证结果有助于改善新经济社会学的社会嵌入性理论缺乏实证分析的局面。     

1949年以来中国环境与发展关系的演变

从IPAT方程出发,发现了环境影响随着经济发展或时间的演变依次遵循三个"倒U型"曲线规律,即环境影响强度的倒U型曲线、人均环境影响的倒U型曲线和环境影响总量的倒U型曲线。根据此规律,可以将该演化过程划分为四个阶段即:环境影响强度高峰前阶段、环境影响强度高峰到人均环境影响量高峰阶段、人均环境影响量高峰到环境影响总量高峰阶段以及环境影响总量稳定下降阶段。在环境演变的不同阶段,主要驱动力存在着明显的差异。在环境影响强度高峰前阶段,资源消耗或污染物排放增长更多地由资源或污染密集型技术进步驱动;在资源消耗或污染物强度高峰到人均资源消耗或污染物排放高峰阶段,主要由经济增长驱动;而在人均资源消耗或污染物排放高峰到资源消耗或污染物排放总量高峰阶段以及总量高峰以后的发展阶段,则主要由节约高效技术或污染减排技术进步来驱动。实证分析表明,中国目前环境与发展关系基本上处于经济增长主要驱动的环境影响强度高峰向人均环境影响高峰过渡阶段,这同时意味着中国要在短期内实现人均环境影响和环境影响总量高峰的跨越是异常困难的。     

2030年可持续发展议程对全球及中国环境治理的影响

《2030年可持续发展议程》已经形成了社会、经济与环境三大支柱的格局.根据进程追踪的方法,本文通过回顾环境进入《2030年可持续发展议程》目标的过程,着重分析环境目标未来15年将对全球与中国环境治理产生的重要影响.在全球环境治理层面的基本结论是:①全球环境治理体系的重要性将显著上升.②新型伙伴关系将强化环境非政府组织与市民社会的作用.③未来全球环境治理将形成以数据和指标为驱动的特点.④联合国系统内环境机构的作用将进一步强化,联合国环境署的发展受到关注.⑤环境与气候变化中的资金融资与技术转让渠道将进一步多元化.⑥气候变化问题与其他环境问题将在全球和国家层面深度融合.对中国环境治理的积极影响,体现在:①《2030年可持续发展议程》将为中国经济的转型升级和可持续发展提供新的强大动力,并形成倒逼机制;②将显著提升中国公众的环保意识;③为中国在全球治理中发挥关键性作用提供了难得的着力点;④将使中国的区域合作更加“绿色化”.当然,在新常态的经济形势下,全球可持续发展的环境目标也使得中国环境治理的压力与责任不断增加.同时,《2030年可持续发展议程》也存在一系列问题与不足之处:①目标过多且模糊不清,实现难度大.②当前所罗列的一些目标间可能包含潜在的冲突,需要进一步的研究与论证.③环境目标缺乏量化的标准.尽管如此,就环境目标而言,《2030年可持续发展议程》比千年发展目标更加综合、全面和系统,是当今国际社会应对环境问题集体努力的成果,必须高度重视与研究.     

Agricultural productivity and environmental insecurity in the Usangu plain, Tanzania: policy implications for sustainability of agriculture

Sustainable agricultural development is a necessity for sustainable economic growth and social development in Africa. Sustainable agriculture largely depends on how effective natural and environmental resources are managed and utilized; it also depends on the security of continuous access to such resources. This research was aimed to look into trends in agricultural productivity, examine the persistence of the environmental insecurity, analyze the relationship between the two, and explore their links to the national development policies. The results are discussed in the context of relevance to national development policies and their implications on the sustainability of agriculture and rural livelihoods security. Literature survey, records collection from the stakeholders, village level participatory assessments (PAs), observations and questionnaire survey were tools used for data collection. The study shows significant (P < 0.01) declines in cereal crop yields, cattle milk yield and cattle calving rate, and increasing cattle mortality rate. Elements of environmental insecurity were found to account for decline in agricultural productivity; significant (P < 0.01) proportion (68%), of 266 households interviewed, reported land resources deterioration, declining soil fertility, and increasing drought frequencies as the causes of their low productivity. Declined fertilizer consumption and increasing variability in rainfall amount significantly (P < 0.01) accounted for 59% and 39%, respectively, of the variations observed in total annual production of rice and maize, which are major cereals in the study area. This study recommends measures to improve soil productivity such as improved fertilizer application and use of organic manures along with mineral fertilizers for maintaining soil productivity; education of farmers on sustainable use and management of land resources; and pro-poor rural policies in agricultural development and environmental governance. Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.