Influences of Border Carbon Adjustments on China’s Foreign Trade

Abstract

The EU, the United States and other economies, with the intention to implement unilateral trade measures Border Carbon Adjustments, impose emission reduction pressure on developing countries. Once implemented, the measures will have great impact on China’s foreign trade. Using the input-output table in 2007, this paper had analyzed the influences on China’s foreign trade as a whole and sub-sectors in three tax rates scenarios. The results showed that the tariff level of China’s exports will increase by 3.6%–6.3% if the tax was levied on exports embodied emissions, and by 1.0%–1.7% if levied on export direct emissions. In 2007, the former total amount of carbon tax was about US$42.6–73.0 billion, 4 times that of the latter. Based on export embodied emissions, sectors largely influenced were non-traditional energy intensive ones, such as textile, et al. These sectors should be encouraged to carry out industrial upgrading, raising the value-added of export goods, and reducing their embodied emissions by reduction of energy intensity. Taking into account of the complexity of data collection, the tax levied on products direct emission is more operational. The results showed that the five top sectors most affected were other chemical materials, processing of petroleum and nuclear fuel, coking, smelting and rolling of ferrous metal and textile. Most of them were energy intensive sectors. Therefore, adjusting export products structure, and controlling too fast development of energy intensive industries are also important strategies in China.     

Influences of Border Carbon Adjustments on China’s Foreign Trade

The EU, the United States and other economies, with the intention to implement unilateral trade measures Border Carbon Adjustments, impose emission reduction pressure on developing countries. Once implemented, the measures will have great impact on China’s foreign trade. Using the input-output table in 2007, this paper had analyzed the influences on China’s foreign trade as a whole and sub-sectors in three tax rates scenarios. The results showed that the tariff level of China’s exports will increase by 3.6%-6.3% if the tax was levied on exports embodied emissions, and by 1.0%-1.7% if levied on export direct emissions. In 2007, the former total amount of carbon tax was about US$42.6-73.0 billion, 4 times that of the latter. Based on export embodied emissions, sectors largely influenced were non-traditional energy intensive ones, such as textile, et al. These sectors should be encour-aged to carry out industrial upgrading, raising the value-added of export goods, and reducing their embodied emissions by reduction of energy intensity. Taking into account of the complexity of data collection, the tax levied on products direct emission is more operational. The results showed that the five top sectors most affected were other chemical materials, processing of petroleum and nuclear fuel, coking, smelting and rolling of ferrous metal and textile. Most of them were energy intensive sectors. Therefore, adjusting export products structure, and controlling too fast development of energy intensive industries are also important strategies in China.     

Influences of Border Carbon Adjustments on China＇s Foreign Trade

The EU, the United States and other economies, with the intention to implement unilateral trade measures Border Car- bon Adjustments, impose emission reduction pressure on develop- ing countries. Once ...     

Compromises of Bali Roadmap

The Bali Roadmap, as the breakthrough on intergovernmental negotiation of climate change mitigation, having brought United States on track, is still a result of compromises. The major compromises of the Bali Roadmap are centered around three issues of quantifying emission reduction targets, developing countries＇ obligations as well as quantifying developed countries＇ financial assistance in developing countries＇ capacity building on climate change. It is found that the rationalities behind these compromises are the national interests. Due to the fact, achieving cohesion among all nations in climate change actions is very difficult. Therefore, the Bali Roadmap may lead to a tough way with distant hope. However, technology innovation and well-designed economic instruments would be helpful and supportive for further international negotiation and cooperation.     

引入碳价格后中国出口贸易成本的变化

应对气候变化的政策手段多种多样,市场机制手段是目前应用广泛的政策工具之一。国际碳交易的实践尤其是欧盟ETS的运行效果显示,电力及一些能源加工转换行业通常会因为承担了碳交易的成本,而会导致其下游产品价格的发生变动,一般表现在下游电力价格的增加,因此会使得其他行业的生产成本受电力价格的上涨而增加。因此碳价格机制的引入对于整个经济发展的成本产生一定的影响,而我国目前以出口贸易为导向的经济现状,势必使得碳价格影响到出口贸易的产品成本上。本文主要利用我国2005年和2007年的投入产出表,测算我国出口贸易产品能源成本的变化。结果显示我国出口产品的能源成本占每年出口额比重约为13%,若扣除掉消耗进口中间产品的因素,仅仅考虑国内中间投入产品的能源成本,则出口产品中的能源成本比重下降至9%-10%左右,其中电力的成本约占整个能源成本的60%以上,若由于碳价格机制的引入导致电力成本上涨50%,则使得我国出口能源成本的至少上涨一半以上,这将大幅度降低我国出口产品的国际竞争力。因此我国出口贸易的主要部门一方面需要不断加强技术研发投入,提升其生产技术水平,降低能源成本的比重,提高单位产品的能源效率;另一方面由于我国外贸存在较大的顺差,也要不断调整出口产品的结构,配合国内产业政策的调整,降低能源成本较高产品的出口,优化出口产品的结构,提高出口产品的科技含量和附加值,整个贸易政策调整优先向竞争力导向转变。     

气候变化科学与碳中和

全球气候治理的行动离不开气候变化科学认知的进步。随着世界主要国家和地区相继宣布其碳中和目标,应对气候变化问题正经历着从科学探索、控制温室气体排放、到低碳转型、共建人类命运共同体的系统变革。文章通过追溯全球气候治理的历史演进和碳中和的科学基础,指出气候变化科学进步在量化温室效应、明确当前气候变化归因和估算碳排放空间发挥的重要作用,并促使气候治理由定性描述逐渐转化为定量目标,同时确定了通过碳中和来实现应对气候变化的路径。文章通过系统分析中国气候变化科学现状,指出尽管中国科研水平在不断提高,但与美国等发达国家相比仍存在很大差距。主要表现为重大研究成果不足,研究领域分布严重不均衡、影响面窄,不足以有效服务国家气候变化内政外交等。中国碳中和之路任重道远,急需科技支撑助力。文章最后提出应围绕实现碳中和目标,优化完善中国气候变化科学建设,建立气候变化科学的“1+N”发展体系,引导研究与发展需求相结合;建立对应人才体系,在国际气候治理中积极有效地发挥中国智慧,助力中国碳中和的实现。     

Carbon Embodied in International Trade of China and Its Emission Responsibility

Carbon emissions embodied in international trade of China during 1997-2007 are accounted by input-output method based on Chinese input-output table and global trade analysis project database.It is revealed that carbon emissions embodied in imports and exports both increased during 1997-2007,but carbon emissions embodied in exports are greater than those embodied in imports,China is a net export nation in embodied carbon.The net exports of embodied carbon account for about 10.82% of the total carbon emissions in 1997,dropped to 7.15% in 2002,increased to13.13% in 2006,and slightly dropped to 12.64% in 2007.Low-end position of international industry division is an objective factor of being a net exporter of embodied carbon for China,and usage of a large amount of obsolete energy-using equipments wasted much energy and increased carbon emissions embodied in exports.Importers should take more responsibilities for carbon emissions embodied in trade,and China should take a certain responsibility for unreasonable energy dissipations too.     

美欧碳关税政策的发展、影响及中国应对

全球气候治理成为焦点问题,各国之间的制衡和竞争也进入了新的阶段,发达国家试图通过政策设计对冲减排投入。美欧同步在碳关税政策上发力,意图争夺全球气候治理主导权。碳关税政策的实施可能引起国际政经格局变化,激发南北国家对立;恶化发展中国家贸易条件,降低国际贸易规模;影响全球气候治理现有格局,造成南北国家博弈加剧。同时,可能恶化中国气候领域的国际合作基础和外部环境,降低中国对外贸易规模和企业竞争力,并对中国产业发展和低碳转型造成负面冲击。积极应对是保护国内利益的重要出发点,应注意：①加强南南合作,以“共同但有区别的责任”原则为基础,争夺国际气候规则话语权;②强化贸易应对、提前谋划碳关税应对预案,加强政策跟踪研判,探索碳关税反制政策工具;③优化产业布局,深化供给侧结构性改革,摆脱高能耗、高污染的发展模式,加快绿色转型和低碳发展步伐;④通过建立完善的碳排放核算标准体系、优化国内碳税法律体系和征管机制、加快完善中国碳交易市场体系等完善碳市场体制机制。     

含外来电的崇明县能源碳排放核算研究

能源消耗是中国最主要的碳排放源,而地方政府是碳管理的基层行政单元,因此,有效控制区域的能源碳排放是碳减排工作的重中之重。区域消耗的能源中,外来电是缓解当地用电压力的重要措施,但一般外来电引起的碳排放易被忽视。将外来电导致的碳排放纳入区域能源碳排放核算体系内,利用部门分析和范围分析法建立了包含外来电分析的能源碳排放核算系统,以上海市崇明县为例进行了应用。研究表明：（1）2000～2009年崇明的能源碳排放增长较快,由181万t增至477万t（CO2当量）;(2）碳排放总量的8212%来自3个部门：工业、建筑业和生活部门;(3）2009年,购买电力导致的间接碳排放达2316%,体现了实施碳管理时考虑外来电力的必要性     

《巴黎协定》时代的气候融资:全球进展、治理挑战与中国对策

本文首先辨析了"气候资金"与"气候融资"两个基本概念,且通过对包括《巴黎协定》在内,最新的气候资金相关法律文件、信息通报、文献资料、智库报告的研究和系统梳理,指出全球气候融资发展趋势表现在全球气候融资缺口正在持续扩大;资金来源更加市场化;发展金融机构募集、管理和分配了大部分的公共资金;新型经济体用款权受到挤压,也呈现出更大的出资潜力;稳定的碳价格被认为是全球实现"零排放"长期减排目标的核心机制。与此同时,气候资金治理体系也处在关键的转型期,目前气候资金治理正在向"自下而上"的模式过渡,《公约》外平台承担了"气候风险主流化"的多重功能,但需要警惕"自下而上"的治理模式有绕过"共同但有区别责任"的风险,且绿色气候基金运作规则的导向性作用值得关注。据此,本文在最后提出了一系列治理建议。建议我国应积极影响国际气候资金机制运营规则和技术规则的制定,避免发达国家以及代表其利益的国际组织制定的标准片面地发展为国际规则;支持在全球设定渐进的、可预测的、可信的碳价格,并且肯定将气候与环境风险因素内生化的核心思想理念;与绿色气候基金开展多方位合作,推动气候公共资金治理规则转型;加强与世界银行在气候融资领域的合作;借G20平台逐步发展为气候融资政策突破和工具创新的引领者。     

气候政策协同：机制与效应

全球气候变化愈演愈烈,造成海平面上升、极端天气事件增加和森林火灾频发等风险加剧。尽管各国为此付出诸多努力,但全球变暖趋势并未遏止,解决气候问题已刻不容缓。中国作为全球碳排放第一大国,已向国际社会承诺在2030年前实现碳排放达峰,2060年前实现碳中和。为探究中国气候政策协同机制及其效应,推动碳减排,文章提出“部门联合体”概念,认为由于部门分工专业化特性,单一部门无法有效应对复杂的气候问题,多部门间的气候政策协同势在必行。气候政策协同贯穿于政策目标制定、政策细则确定与政策实施过程之中,可以通过优化政策目标、完善政策细则、强化政策实施的方式,充分动员各部门参与应对气候变化,提升气候治理能力。研究表明,中央政府与省级政府的气候政策协同程度存在明显的层级差异,中央政府的气候政策协同程度更高,省级政府的气候政策协同还有较大提升空间。文章使用2003—2017年中国省级面板数据实证分析,发现气候政策协同可以降低碳排放,但这种影响以间接效应体现出来。气候政策协同不会对碳排放产生直接影响,而是通过四类交互效应机制发挥作用：气候政策协同与加强财政投入、推动技术创新、优化产业结构、降低能源强度等措施相配套,可以更为有效地减少碳排放。中国的气候政策协同经验对构建全球碳减排机制有重要的参考价值,文章提出,以气候政策协同的有效性为现实基础,依据“部门联合体”行为逻辑,建立全球性的气候治理协同机制,高效推进全球碳减排,减缓气候变化进程。     

Empirical research on construction of a measurement framework for tourism carbon emission in China

According to the logic process of carbon reduction in China which arises from the measurement to reduction, from reduction to offsetting, the measurement of carbon emission in the tourism industry was the first and key step. Based on the life cycle assessment theory and input–output analysis, this article used economic and environmental measurement technologies, The System of National Accounting (SNA), Tourism Satellite Account (TSA), System of Integrated Environment and Economic Accounting (SEEA), and so on, and built up a top-down carbon emission analysis framework for the tourism industry and estimated carbon emission of the tourism industry in China in 2007. The finding showed that the total carbon emission of the tourism industry in China in 2007 was 169.78 million tons, covering 2.71% of carbon emission of all industries in China in 2007, and 2.44% of the total carbon emission in China in 2007. The direct carbon emission of the tourism industry in China in 2007 was 73.56 million tons, including transportation (50.14 million tons), sightseeing (1.33 million tons), lodging (4.19 million tons), accommodation (4.73 million tons), shopping (8.14 million tons), entertainment (0.67 million tons), communication (0.45 million tons), and others (3.90 million tons). The indirect carbon emission of the tourism industry in China in 2007 was 96.23 million tons, mostly contributed by coking, gas, and petroleum processing industries, transportation and warehousing industry, machinery and equipment manufacturing industry, and food manufacturing and tobacco processing industry, which covered 57%.     

低碳旅游概念辨识及其实现途径

随着节能减排、应对气候变化等概念的实践和推广,低碳旅游也越来越多的被提及和实践。低碳旅游由于其新,无国际经验可循,在概念、内涵以及实现途径等方面认识还不够深入,甚至形成了一些认识的误区,实践中可能因为认识的偏误,阻碍旅游业的发展,而忽略了"低碳发展"所特有的协同发展与控制温室气体排放的积极意义。本文认为,低碳发展是异于传统旅游业发展模式的一种转型发展方式,具有明确的保护气候环境的目的。同时,旅游业是主张消费和体验的行业,低碳旅游不应该以刻意减少或约束消费和体验为手段来实现,低碳旅游的实现途径是多样的,不仅仅有节能减排,还可以根据不同地区的资源条件,选择以成本最低的方式实现低碳发展。我国正处于经济和旅游业的快速发展期,实践低碳旅游发展必然会面临更多挑战,但尽早实现低碳旅游发展转型,不仅对发展低碳经济、保障气候安全做出贡献,也能为改善生态环境,保障能源安全,实现可持续发展做出贡献。     

部分国家碳减排方案及其基本依据

二氧化碳是导致全球气候变暖最重要的温室气体．碳减排是缓解温室效应的一项重要措施．因而成为全球变化研究中的热点。在分析国际上主要利益集团中主要代表国家的碳减排方案的基础上．分析各个集团不同减排方案的基本依据。欧盟主张对灵活性机制的运用予以严格限制．强调发达国家应将主要精力放在本土的减排上．强烈反对允许以参与灵活机制来替代降低排放指标。伞形集团要求实施自由的排放权交易和灵活执行KP，主张对其应用不加任何限制．这是伞型国家的主要利益交合点。发展中国家共有的主要观点为：支持严格执行京都议定书．强调“共有但有区别的责任”的减排原则，认为发达国家应对温室气体排放负最大的责任并应率先减排。     

投资仲裁下碳中和政策的争端风险与应对

为应对气候变化引发的全球环境危机,气候保护义务正不断被纳入国际经贸协定,进而影响全球市场,通过市场机制促使各国实施碳中和政策。而另一方面,各国在激烈的全球市场竞争中,为促进贸易和投资,长期实施宽松的投资监管制度,并签订大量国际投资协定强调对外商投资的保护,但这些协定缺失了环境保护的导向。在此背景下,日益强化的气候保护义务与水涨船高的投资保护义务在全球市场冲突加剧,体现为国家实施碳中和政策可能会违反国际投资协定下的投资保护义务,由此产生气候保护投资争端。绝大多数国际投资协定允许外国投资者对东道国提起投资仲裁,如果投资者得到仲裁庭支持,东道国可能面临巨额赔偿。这也促使很多欧美律所和第三方资助人极力推动受影响企业挑战东道国政策,大量此类投资仲裁案件正席卷而来,并不断影响环境、经济和社会维度。诚然,投资仲裁机制存在侧重投资者经济利益而忽视东道国公共利益的问题,一些投资仲裁实践正在减损东道国践行碳中和的努力,但这一争端本质在于投资者与东道国间的权利义务在全球市场中不平衡。因而,摒弃投资仲裁并不能解决问题本身,况且目前国际局势不稳定,中国企业的海外投资需要投资仲裁机制保护。对于气候保护投资争端,应聚焦于如何在投资仲裁机制下平衡国家碳中和政策与投资保护义务的冲突,以及如何约束仲裁庭过度的自由裁量权。对此,应完善国际投资协定,强化东道国规制权和公共利益,纳入投资者义务,改进投资仲裁规则,加强争端预防措施。     

论碳关税的福利效应

哥本哈根会议上碳关税引发热议,成为发达国家和发展中国家讨论的焦点.本文从碳关税的内涵出发,梳理了有关碳关税问题的已有研究,通过建立一个简单的局部均衡模型,对征收碳关税情况下进口国、出口国的福利以及全球福利变化进行了分析,研究得出:进口国征收碳关税能提高本国福利水平,减低出口国的福利水平,但福利变化程度取决于进口国国内碳税、出口国是否征税国内碳税、进出口国国内碳密集度水平等情况.进一步.由于温室气体排放是全球公共品,用全球福利最大化代替进口国福利最大的约束条件,探讨了最优碳关税的确定方法,认为最优碳关税取决于需求函数和供给函数的值,由出口国国内碳税与外部性的差异与进口国国内碳税与外部性差异的比值来决定.温室气体减排是国际贸易面临的新问题,碳关税仅仅拉开了以气候变化之名进行国际贸易保护的序幕,如何有效地将国际气候变化规则纳入国际贸易利益的维护中是我们未来面临的重要课题.     

碳循环、气候变化与金融风险

气候变化会导致极端天气事件增多、经济损失增加,进而会影响金融稳定,需要相关部门及时评估和应对。因此,构建合理的气候金融分析框架,分析气候变化影响金融变量的传导路径,并制定针对性应对措施,具有重要的理论和现实意义。该研究在金融加速器框架下构建了一个包含碳循环、气候变化因素以及多个经济主体的DSGE模型,模拟了气候变化对产出、资产价格、企业违约率以及信贷总量等变量的影响。研究结果显示：①气候变化冲击减少了产出,降低了资本价格和资本收益率,增加了外部融资溢价水平,推高了企业杠杆率和信贷违约率,进而引起信贷紧缩,投资减少。②碳强度冲击增加了产出,提高了资本价格和资本收益率,减少了外部融资溢价水平,降低企业杠杆率和企业信贷违约率,进而引起信贷扩张,投资增加。③减排强度冲击主要通过成本驱动影响宏观经济。短期内经济受减排冲击的负向影响较大,长期地看,随着产出的快速恢复,投资和信贷需求增加,从而促进了经济增长。据此建议：①及时准确地评估气候变化风险在金融体系中的规模,防范非传统的系统性风险对金融市场产生的影响。②积极推动绿色低碳技术的快速发展,促进减污降碳与增加产出的双赢成效。③完善气候变化经济模型分析框架,提升气候变化经济分析框架的现实解释力和理论指导作用。