Urbanization in China Based on International Comparison: A Discussion with Two Prevalent Views

Abstract>

Two prevalent views are reviewed on China’s urbanization firstly. Then, this article highlights the characteristics and pattern of urbanization in the world based on the quadrants map, using data of 118 countries or areas. The results indicate that the process of urbanization in the world excluding the data of China has slowed down gradually. A further exploration examines China’s urbanization process and economic development over time, which reveals that both urbanization level and the level of economic development belong to the low-grade coordination pattern. The low level of urbanization is closely connected with the low level of economic development. Actually, China’s urbanization gap appeared during 1985–1995, but it has been eliminating this urbanization gap since 1995 as a result of rapid urbanization growing. The complicated realities revealed in this analysis challenge the existing two prevalent views.     

Empirically Analysis of the CO2 Emissions Embodied in Exports of China

Abstract

In this paper, using the input-output model, the author first calculated the CO₂ emissions embodied in exports of China in 2002 and 2007. Then, the author empirically analyzed problems existing in the composition of exported products and analyzed its possible reasons. The research results of this paper are as follows: Since China’s entry into WTO, the CO₂ emissions embodied in exports of China have been increasing rapidly; the value of exported products of high-carbon emissions industries accounts for a relatively higher proportion to China’s total exports value because China’s carbon intensive products have a certain competitive advantage. Additionally, this paper has put forward relevant suggestions based on these results.     

No Sustainability without Technical,Fiscal and Social Innovation

Abstract

Migration process has become increasingly important in recent research on population and the environment. A majority of the existing migration and environment literature has focused on the environmental causes and determinants of migration. With the largest rural-to-urban migration flow in world history, and growing concerns about the environmental problems accompanying its fast economic development, China provides a particularly important case for migration and environment research. This paper reviews major migration theories and recent research on environmental effects on migration, with specific attention to the influences of environmental factors on rural-to-urban labor migration in China. A comprehensive multilevel conceptual framework is developed for studying the environmental causes of rural-to-urban migration in China. The effects of land resources on household labor migration decisions in rural China are explored to illustrate the application of this framework.     

The Status Quo and Developing Trend Analysis of Global Carbon Finance

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This paper gives a systematic view of the new trends of global carbon finance innovation under the challenge of global climate change and in the process of transition to achieve economic growth from “high carbon” to ‘low carbon”, covering the following aspects: the structure, status quo and developing trend of global carbon market. The paper discusses the innovation in financial organization and service systems and governments’ overall guidance and policy support, and draws the conclusion that the world is undergoing massive changes with governments actively responding to carbon finance to embrace the tremendous opportunities for clean energy and climate change in financial industry. To seize the opportunity, a complete and overall carbon finance system of China should be put in the top of the agenda. Given the current tasks of energy conservation and pollution reduction and the growing demand for capital input, China needs to construct an clear of policy guidance, a diversified financia service system, and a multi-approach carbon finance system to intensify and widen the participation of financial industry, to expand financing channels for sustainable economy and spread risks, and finally, work out an inexpensive solution to the realization of China’s low carbon target.     

The Clean Development Mechanism and Sustainable Development in China's Electricity Sector

Abstract

The Clean Development Mechanism, a flexibility mechanism contained in the Kyoto Protocol, offers China an important tool to attract investment in clean energy technology and processes into its electricity sector. The Chinese electricity sector places centrally in the country's economy and environment, being a significant contributor to the acid rain and air pollution problems that plague many of China's cities and regions, and therefore a focus of many related energy and environmental policies. China's electricity sector has also been the subject of a number of economic analyses that have showed that it contains the highest potential for clean energy investment through the Clean Development Mechanism of any economic sector in China. This mechanism, through the active participation from investors in more industrialized countries, can help alleviate the environmental problems attributable to electricity generation in China through advancing such technology as wind electricity generation, clean coal technology, high efficient natural gas electricity generation, or utilization of coal mine methane. In this context, the Clean Development Mechanism also compliments a range of environmental and energy policies which are strategizing to encourage the sustainable development of China's economy.     

Coincidence and Upgrade: A Typical Case Study of Rural Ecotourism Development

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At present, internal rural tourism is at the stage of upgrading and renewing, and ecotourism has been considered to be the main direction. This paper discussed the concepts and criteria of rural tourism and ecotourism, analyzed a typical case of Nongke Village of Chengdu City-being considered to be the first rural tourism site in China, went deep into the problems of the contents and criteria of the development of rural ecotourism, and tried to probe into the principles of the development of rural ecotourism both theoretically and practically so as to understand the rules of the development of rural ecotourism.     

Resource and Environmental Issues in Transitional China: A Perspective from the Interaction Among Market,Government and Society

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Along with the rapid growth of economy in the postreform period after 1979, China has faced severe problems of resource overusing and environmental degradation which would threaten the sustainable development of economy and society. This article explores an effective mechanism of managing resource and environment in China. It examines some major resource and environmental issues, and constructs a framework of institution innovation to cover three sectors (government, market and society). In addition, the article analyzes their experience and evaluation in resource management and environmental conservation during the transitional period. We argue that the combination of market regulation, government intervention and public participation is an effective way of allocating resource and protecting environment. Some suggestions are put forward to balance the relationship between them, including coordinating role of government and market, building platform for market operation and creating an atmosphere of public participation.     

Projecting ozone-related mortality in East China

BackgroundThe concentrations of ozone (O₃) in China are increasing, especially in East China, but its future trends and potential health impacts remain to be explored.ObjectivesThe objective was to assess future trends in O₃ concentrations and related premature death in East China between 2005 and 2030.MethodsFirst, a global chemical transport model (MIROC-ESM-CHEM) and regional chemical transport modelling system (including the Weather Research and Forecasting model and the Community Multiscale Air Quality model) were combined to estimate daily O₃ concentrations in 2005 and 2030 in East China under the “current legislation” (CLE) and “maximum technically feasible reduction” (MFR) scenarios which were applied globally. O₃ concentrations were then linked with population projections, mortality projections, and O₃-mortality associations to estimate changes in O₃-related mortality in East China.ResultsThe annual mean O₃ concentration was projected to increase in East China between 2005 and 2030 under the CLE scenario, while decrease under the MFR scenario. Under the CLE scenario, O₃-attributable health burden could increase by at least 40,000 premature deaths in East China, without considering the population growth. Under the MFR scenario, the health burden could decrease by up to 260,000 premature deaths as a result of the reduction in O₃ concentration with a static population. However, when the population growth was considered, O₃-attributable health burden could increase by up to 46,000 premature deaths in East China under the MFR scenario.ConclusionsThe results suggest that the health burden attributable to O₃ may increase in East China in 2030.     

The Essence of a Recycling Economy: Circular Utilization of Resources

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By analyzing the relationship between a recycling economy and sustainable development theory, this article puts forward the basic concept of a recycling economy as a dynamic economic operational model, and explains the four basic characteristics. It is stressed that the essential element of a recycling economy is the use of resources circularly. In the end, this article analyzes the phenomena of utilizing the recycling economy concept incorrectly, and sets forth a number of problems that should be noted during the process of developing a recycling economy in China.     

Urbanization in Western China

China has experienced considerable urbanization in the past 60 years,especially since the implementation of the Economic Reform and Opening-up Policy in 1978.In 1949,there were only 132 cities with an urban population of 27.4 million,while in 2008 China had 652 cities with a total urban population of 606 million.Such urbanization is attributed to the boost in the number of cities and the urban population.Urban expansion enhanced geographic inequality between the three major regions in China.Compared with the eastern and central regions,western China only has 19%of the total cities and 18%of the urban population.The urbanization rate was 37.2%for the western region in 2008,while it reached 53.3%for the eastern regions and 45.3%for central China.Using a geographic information system(GIS)and statistical analyses,this study aims at explaining the structure and spatial development of urbanization,and highlighting the current issues of urban inequality in western China during the past two decades.The paper drew following conclusions:(1)Urbanization disparities between eastern and western China have become increasingly obvious,but seem to be evolving slowly since the establishment of the government’s Western Development Priority Policy in 2000.(2)Cities of various sizes were expanded in western China,and the main factors affecting the urbanization are population numbers and density,government investment and geographic conditions.(3)Current patterns of urbanization in the western region are distributed unevenly between provinces.     

Progress in Enclave Tourism Study of Overseas: A Literature Review

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In response to the “isolated island” phenomenon emerging from the development of tourist resorts in China, this paper reviews the study of enclave tourism overseas, which has similar features to the resort “island”. Based on the literatures related to enclave tourism from Tourism Management and Annals of Tourism Research, this paper reviews the study of enclave tourism from the following aspects: definition discussion, theories used, causation of enclaves, characteristics and impacts of enclave tourism. The understanding of the overseas researches on enclave tourism would provide instructions for the study on the problems of Chinese resorts, such as enclavity and “island effects”, and suggest measures for the sustainable development of resorts in China. This paper is divided into three sections. Section 1 briefly introduces the development of enclave tourism in developing countries and the outline of enclave tourism study. Section 2 elaborates on the contents of enclave tourism research and gives deep insights into the study on concepts, characteristics, causations and effects respectively, which is the key part of this paper; Section 3 concludes the review and proposes suggestions for the enclave tourism study in China.     

Discussion of Population Modernization Theory and Actuality Analysis of Population Modernization in China

Abstract

This paper discusses the basic concept and connotation of population modernization.

The author briefly analyzes the actuality of population modernization in China, gives some advice and puts forward some measures.     

On the Regional Coordinated Development Between Tourism Human Resource and Tourism Industry in China

Abstract

Tourism is one of the typical labor intensive industries and tourism human resource (HR) is the main factor for regional discrepancy of tourism industry. The paper takes China as research region and evaluates the level of tourism HR and the level of tourism industry of 31 provinces respectively. First, the paper constructs evaluation index of regional tourism industry and tourism HR. Then, the paper gets the evaluation scores of every province by applying the principal components analysis and statistical package for the social sciences processing. Second, the paper builds the tourism development-tourism HR matrix and divides the matrix into four quadrants. Finally, the paper points out the problems of tourism HR that exist in the 31 provinces and puts forward development strategy.     

Study on Economic growth,Urbanization and Sustainable Utilization of Cultivated Land in China

Abstract

By means of the dynamic regression model, this paper analyzes the relationships among economic growth, urbanization and changes of cultivated land in China, finds that the ratio of cultivated land occupied by economic growth is decreasing with social and economic growth. And, based on that, some policy suggestions on how to promote the sustainable use of cultivated land in China are put forward.     

Land Degradation Evaluation in North Hebei Province Based on Remote Sensing and GIS

Abstract

Land degradation is one of the serious environmental problems that can lead to poverty, and is especially prominent in eco-fragile areas in developing countries and increases the risk of environmental safety. North Hebei Province belongs to an ecologically fragile region in North China, which has great impact on the eco-safety of Beijing and Tianjin. Using Landsat TM data and GIS, this paper evaluates land degradation in North Hebei province of China from the the 1960's to 1987 and 2000. Land use/cover change pattern from 1987 to 2000, its regional difference and forest change characteristics will also be analyzed; soil erosion intensity and arable land suitability were also evaluated. Results revealed that land use/cover pattern in this study area did not change greatly from 1987 to 2000. The structure and function of regional land ecosystem was at a level of local improvement and integral deterioration. Land above medium soil erosion intensity reached 21 percent, which was also the area with a serious soil erosion and land degradation problem. Soil erosion and land degradation intensity of grassland was the biggest. For the present arable land, the proportion of high suitability was 13 percent.     

The short-term effect of heat waves on mortality and its modifiers in China: An analysis from 66 communities

BackgroundMany studies have reported increased mortality risk associated with heat waves. However, few have assessed the health impacts at a nation scale in a developing country. This study examines the mortality effects of heat waves in China and explores whether the effects are modified by individual-level and community-level characteristics.MethodsDaily mortality and meteorological variables from 66 Chinese communities were collected for the period 2006–2011. Heat waves were defined as ≥ 2 consecutive days with mean temperature ≥ 95th percentile of the year-round community-specific distribution. The community-specific mortality effects of heat waves were first estimated using a Distributed Lag Non-linear Model (DLNM), adjusting for potential confounders. To investigate effect modification by individual characteristics (age, gender, cause of death, education level or place of death), separate DLNM models were further fitted. Potential effect modification by community characteristics was examined using a meta-regression analysis.ResultsA total of 5.0% (95% confidence intervals (CI): 2.9%–7.2%) excess deaths were associated with heat waves in 66 Chinese communities, with the highest excess deaths in north China (6.0%, 95% CI: 1%–11.3%), followed by east China (5.2%, 95% CI: 0.4%–10.2%) and south China (4.5%, 95% CI: 1.4%–7.6%). Our results indicate that individual characteristics significantly modified heat waves effects in China, with greater effects on cardiovascular mortality, cerebrovascular mortality, respiratory mortality, the elderly, females, the population dying outside of a hospital and those with a higher education attainment. Heat wave mortality effects were also more pronounced for those living in urban cities or densely populated communities.ConclusionHeat waves significantly increased mortality risk in China with apparent spatial heterogeneity, which was modified by some individual-level and community-level factors. Our findings suggest adaptation plans that target vulnerable populations in susceptible communities during heat wave events should be developed to reduce health risks.     

Study Progress and Trends of Strategic Environmental Assessment in China

Abstract

Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) in China has developed rapidly since it was introduced into China in the 1990s. Chinese government promulgated the Environmental Impact Assessment Law of China (hereinafter referred to as the EIA Law) in 2002. In this law, it is stipulated clearly that regional and sector plans should be assessed. Through investigating materials and analyzing literatures, this article analyses the practical and academic study achievements of SEA in China that have been achieved since the EIA Law was implemented, probes into the current situation of the main level of SEA in China—plan EIA, then summarizes the development characteristics, and eventually, puts forward the development trends of SEA in China. The research conclusions can offer the foundations for comprehending systematically the progress of SEA in China.     

Dynamic Changes,Regional Differences,and Influencing Factors of CO2 Emission Performance in China

Abstract

This paper proposes to use DEA models with undesirable outputs to construct the Malmquist index that can be use to investigate the dynamic changes of CO₂ emission performance. With the index, the authors have measured the CO₂ emission performance of 28 provinces and autonomous regions in China from 1996 to 2007; with the convergence theory and panel data regression model, the authors analyze the regional differences and the influencing factors. It is found that the performance of CO₂ emissions in China has been continuously improved mainly due to the technological progress, and the average improvement rate is 3.25%, with a cumulative improvement rate of 40.86%. In addition, the CO₂ emission performance varies across four regions. As a whole, the performance score of eastern China is the highest. The northeastern and central China has relatively lower performance scores, and the western China is relatively backward. The regional differences are decreasing, and the performance of CO₂ emissions is convergent. The influence of some factors on the performance of CO₂ emissions is significant, such as the level of economic development, the level of industrial structure, energy intensity, and ownership structure. The influence of some factors, such as opening-up to the outside world, on the performance of CO₂ emissions is not significant.     

Cross-country income disparity and its effect on carbon emissions

This study is motivated by the interesting relationship between the income Kuznets curve and the carbon Kuznets curve.This paper focuses on the interaction effects of income distribution and income per capita on CO₂ emissions using country group panel data over the period of 1980 to 2006 by employing fixed effects（FE）,random effects（RE）and feasible generalized least squares（FGLS）estimation methods.The main findings are as follows.（1）There exists an inverted-U relationship between CO₂ emissions per capita and income per capita in all sample countries and high-income groups.（2）The cross-country income disparity has a negative effect on the average level of CO₂ emissions but a positive effect on the aggregate income elasticity of CO₂ emissions.（3）This negative effect of income disparity on the average level of CO₂emissions decreases along with the growth of per capita income.Thus,economic growth contributes to the reduction of this negative impact.     

The Impact on Environmental Kuznets Curve by Trade and Foreign Direct Investment in China

Abstract

Based on data of trade, foreign direct investment (FDI), economic development and environmental conditions in China's 30 provinces between 1990–2002, this paper deals with the impact on Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) of trade and FDI in China. The results show no direct impact on EKC of trade, on the one hand. However, trade contributes significantly to economic growth, and has played a positive role in introducing advanced pollution prevention technology and environmental management methodology to China. Therefore, a proactive trade policy will help solve the environmental pollution problem brought by economic growth. On the other hand, there is a positive correlation between FDI and pollutant emission, which proves that FDI does have some negative influence on environment in China due to hasty introduction of foreign capital and inadequate environmental management system in China.