Bewertung der Auswirkungen von Pflanzenschutzmitteln auf Regenwürmer

The fundamental data requirements for the authorization of plant protection products and the inclusion of active ingredients in Annex I of Council Directive 91/414/EEC are described in Annexes II and III of the Directive. The uniform principles for the registration of plant protection products in the Member States described in Annex VI of the Directive were primarily developed to assess the effects on the soil functions with regard to agriculture. A tiered approach was developed to assess the effects of plant protection products on earthworms based on the data requirements of Annex II and III of Directive 91/414/EEC. The risk is assessed using the effect-concentration evaluated in ecotoxicological tests and the predicted or calculated environmental concentration. To protect the whole range of naturally occurring species in terrestrial biocenosis assessment factors need to be considered.     

Erfahrungen des Umweltbundesamtes mit der EU-Biozid-Richtlinie

Biocides are active substances and products which are intended to destroy (…) any harmful organism by chemical or biological means. Typical applications are for instance wood preservatives, antifouling products or disinfectants. In the European Union the use of biocidal products is regulated since 1998 by the Biocidal Product Directive 98/8/EG (BPD). The BPD was transposed into German law in 2001 by the “Biozid-Gesetz”. The Federal Environment Agency is responsible for the environmental risk assessment of biocidal active substances and products under the “Biozid-Gesetz” in Germany. The European Commission has to evaluate the BPD seven years after endorsement and if necessary, has to submit a proposal for the revision of the directive. It is expected that the European Commission will publish soon a review of the enforcement of the BPD together with suggestions for the revision of the directive. In this article the German Federal Environment Agency summarises suggestions for the revision of the BPD based on its ten years experience with the directive: The scope of the BPD needs an exact clarification of borderlines in order to avoid confusion with other legislation. Food and feeding stuff together with natural products like lavender branches and cedar wood, which are used as attracting or repellent agents, have to be excluded from the scope of the BPD. Special data requirements for natural oils and pheromones should be developed to take the complex composition of these substances into account. The advantages of a centralised and decentralised authorisation procedure are discussed for biocidal products in special product types. Furthermore we stipulate that biocidal active substances which are nano particles are treated as separate active substances with own identities. Due to animal welfare reasons it should be obligatory to share data from vertebrate animal studies as it is already mandatory under the REACH regulation. The import of articles treated with biocidal active substances into the European market should only be allowed, if the active substance is approved for their biocidal use within the EU. Finally we suggest to implement an obligation to report the market shares or consumption rates of biocidal active substances and products. Together with procedural simplifications and adaptation in the scope of the directive, changes of the data requirements will be the key issues during the revision of the BPD. Most important, these changes should not reduce but ideally increase the level of protection for human health and the environment.     

Entwicklung und Anwendung von Pflanzenschutzmitteln: Wirtschaftliche Aspekte

The development of new active ingredients and formulations is increasingly influenced by costs and regulations in the frame of pesticide registration procedures. Lawmakers and administrators therefore take over more responsibility, not only for the subject of regulation, but also for fair and balanced rules which can be predicted in the long-term. There are, however, deficiencies in the choice of certain quality standards — like in the European drinking water directive — which are not risk-related and which are susceptible to giving misleading guidance. Testing requirements should be scrutinized for efficiency, i.e. whether the increase in knowledge and safety is in reasonable proportion to the invested resources.     

Anwendungen von Pflanzenschutzmitteln in der Landwirtschaft

A political dispute has broken out over a research project by the Federal Environmental Agency (UBA) concerning the use of plant protection agents in agriculture. Under Article 15 para. 1 No. 3 d and e of the Plant Protection Act, plant protection agents can only be authorised if their proper and appropriate use, or the consequences of such use, have no negative impacts on human or animal health or on other biological communities, especially water bodies. In specific cases the Federal Environmental Agency as the approving authority fulfils the legislative requirements with a conditional authorisation. Thus, for example, specified minimum distances to the water body must be observed according to the toxicity and exposure of the plant protection agent. The many continuing negative impacts on water bodies from the use of plant protection agents raise questions as to whether certain plant protection agents ought not to have been authorised, and whether environmental requirements were strict enough in the past or whether farmers did not comply with them to a sufficient degree. The research project described here will clarify and document possible improper practices and practical problems. Investigations will be undertaken without prior notice, as only this will enable the actual practices to be recorded. Data will be anonymous, since the project does ’not aim to ‘convict’ individual farmers. The task of the project is to collect representative data for the whole of Germany. Initial interim results will be available in 2006. This report will then be continued in a ‘Part 2’.     

Auswirkungen nanotechnologischer Entwicklungen auf die Umwelt

Background

Nanotechnology is about discovering, developing and using materials consisting in their primary stage at a size within the low nanometer range. These ultrafine particles offer new properties and opportunities. Even if the synthesis of nanoparticles has been discovered not until during the last decades, the exposure of humans to ultrafine particles occurred long before, due to the generation of ultrafine particles in ambient air during combustion processing.

Aim

Within this review, only engineered nanoparticles are considered, because these technical products are associated with many hopes for new applications, while only little information is available about their potential adverse effects. At workpiaces, during manufacturing, in technical applications or in drugs, nanoparticles will always have ‘side effects’ which have carefully to be weighed against their advantages, before they can be released in the environment. Therefore, information about their safety and potential hazards is urgently needed.

Results and Discussion

Along with the technical development of nanoparticles, a public discussion has started, leading to extensive investigations on possible negative ‘side effects’ on human health. Research activities have been strengthened in departments for environmental toxicology, hygiene institutes and other academic facilities to identify hazard and risks during handling and use of these new materials. On the other hand, nanotechnology offers the promise to prematurely identify environmental problems through improved detection and monitoring capabilities, and significantly reduced environmental effects from cleaner manufacturing and synthesis approaches, which results in a reduction or elimination of wastes as well as reduced energy use, and unique remediation solutions as well as pollution strategies.

Conclusions

However, the potential impact of manufactured nanomaterials used in various applications also needs to be evaluated in the context of human health with regard to potential toxicology and routes of exposure, environmental effects, including fate, transport, transformation, bio-availability, and bio-accumulation, and an analysis of product-life cycle.     

Langzeitmonitoring möglicher Auswirkungen gentechnisch veränderter Pflanzen auf Pflanzengesellschaften Konzeptentwicklung am Beispiel von Raps (Brassica napus)

Ecological monitoring of genetically engineered plants (GEPs) is being developed in the Bavarian Environmental Protection Agency. Focusing on oilseed rape (Brassica napus, Cruciferae), a method is being established to measure the impact of the commercial release of GEPs on plant communities. Oilseed rape is known to escape from cultures and to establish outside the fields. It also produces hybrid offspring with wild relatives of the European flora. The study site is located in Bavaria (Germany) and comprises an area of 5700 ha. It is characterized by a mosaic of protected natural habitats in close vicinity to intensively cultivated farmland. In this region species composition and population density of Cruciferae is documented prior to a possible commercial release of GEPs. Furthermore Cruciferae of the study site are tested for the presence of transgenes. Therefore, plant material of selected Cruciferae is randomly sampled. We also test oilseed rape honey from the study site and pollen from pollen traps for the presence of hybrid pollen. The molecular method used is the ‘real-time PCR’. In addition, an intensive monitoring program is established in two types of biotopes, which are located in the study site. Multivariate statistics are being used to correlate plant community data with soil parameters.     

Wirkungen von 2,4- und 2,5-Dinitrophenol auf die Embryonalentwicklung des Herings Clupea harengus

The biological effects of dinitrophenol (DNP) were tested on Clupea harengus eggs of Baltic spring and autumn spawners. Experimental water temperature was maintained at 10.8°C±0.2C° (experiment 1) and 11.8°C±0.2C° (experiments 2 and 3); salinity ranged between 14 and 16‰. Eggs were artificially fertilized 1 to 4 h after catching the parent individuals; they were attached to glass plates and incubated in 1 l aerated containers. Thirty, 48 and 55 h after fertilization, eggs were transferred to various test concentrations of DNP (dilutions of 2,4- and 2,5-DNP used are listed in Table 1). 2,4-Dinitrophenol is known as a true uncoupling reagent, which inhibits the phosphorylation of ADP. The effects of DNP on embryo activity, heart rate, rates of body malformations and mortality are studied. Embryo activity rose above control values between the 6th and 7th days of the incubation period in low DNP concentrations (0.01 to 0.05 mM/l), and heart activity deviated after 5 to 7 days from that of the controls. Mortality rate depended on inhibitor concentration and time of poisoning (Table 4). Various malformations of embryos were observed (anophthalmy, symmetrical and unilateral microphthalmy, curled bodies, de-differentiations, Fig. 7).     

Untersuchungen über den einfluß von ölverschmutzungen auf meeresalgen. I. Die wirkung von rohölfilmen auf den CO2-gaswechsel außerhalb des wassers

Oil pollution in the sea is generally restricted to thin oil films floating on the water surface. Such oil films tend to coat littoral plants or animals during low tide. The effects of coating with crude oil on the CO₂-uptake of various marine algae has been investigated under conditions of emersion. In emersed algae, CO₂-uptake is more or less depressed, depending on the thickness of the oil film (0.1 to 0.0001 mm) and the type of crude oil (Iran, Libya, Venezuela). On the other hand, water loss during exposure is reduced, so that the oil-covered algae are able to photosynthesize over a longer period than algae without oil cover. After retransfer to oil-free sea water, in most cases photosynthesis rates remain depressed throughout the period of observation. There are two effects which probably interfere with gas exchange: (1) lowering of diffusion rates of photosynthetic gases and of water evaporation by the oil films; (2) toxic effects of crude-oil components.     

Einfluß von 2,4-dinitrophenol auf die atmung und die Konzentration einiger metabolite bei embryonen des herings Clupea harengus

In rearing experiments with herring eggs (temperature=14.0°±0.1°C; salinity=15‰), oxygen consumption under normal conditions and after addition of 2,4-DNP (concentration=0.1 mM/l; pH=8.1) was measured over the period of embryonic development by means of the Wabburg-technique. Additionally, the concentration of low molecular sugars, polysaccharides, free amino-acids, and adenosintriphosphate (ATP) was determined. The oxygen consumption increases during embryonic development; this increase is not linear. Periods of high intensity of oxygen consumption are followed by others with only slight increase. Immediately before hatching, the respiration curve distincly declines (Fig. 1). Under the influence of 2,4-DNP (dinitrophenol), the embryos increase their respiration intensity after a short period of incubation. The maximum rise in percentage over the normal values reaches up to 400% at the beginning of gastrulation, falls to 50% even before the locking of the blastopore, and decreases slightly to about 30% until hatching. The immense decline in the percentage increase in respiration following the addition of 2,4-DNP at the end of the first day of development is caused by the rapid increase in normal respiration. After poisoning with DNP at different stages of development, the uncoupled respiration curves are normally almost equal. This holds both for the temporal position of the respiration maxima (about 12 to 24 h after poisoning), and for the absolute amounts of the increased respiration over the normal values (5 to 7 μl/h/100 embryos). Excluded from these regularly repeated findings are two stages of development: (1) the stage of epiboly after exceeding the yolk equator until shortly before locking of the blastopore (26 to 32 h after fertilization at 14°C); (2) the period at the end of the 4th day of development when the eyes become pigmented (100 to 120 h after fertilization). These two stages are characterized by the fact that, at the moment of poisoning, the normal respiration shows retarded activity. On the other hand, these two stages are well able to undergo periods of development in which long-living embryonic deformations can occur after uncoupling of respiration with 2,4-DNP. The content in low molecular sugars and polysaccharides decreases slightly in the course of embryonic development and, following the addition of 2,4-DNP, decreases considerably during the first 24 h. After 48 h, accelerated decomposition of carbohydrates continues. Under the influence of 2,4-DNP, the embryos metabolize more carbohydrates in 1 day than during the whole normal development period. The changeover of the metabolism to increased decomposition of carbohydrates can be explained as a dislocation of the energetic sources from the respiration chain to glycolytic phosphorylation. In accordance with these facts, the concentration of free amino-acids, almost equal during normal embryonic development, remains unchanged under the influence of 2,4-DNP.     

Hydrochemie von Waldquellen des Fichtelgebirges

The hydrochemistry of forest springs was investigated in the Fichtelgebirge, a region in NE Bavaria (F.R.G.) which is strongly affected by forest decline. Data were collected from 165 springs (Tables 1–5). Water chemistry is characterized by high concentrations of nitrate, sulfate and aluminium and is influenced by forest decline, liming and soil type of the catchment. Model calculations show maximal N-outputs of 40 kg nitrate-N/ha^*a indicating N-saturation in some forest ecosystems of the Fichtelgebirge. N-saturated ecosystems without buffercapacity for Nitrogen will release all further N-inputs as NO₃ to the aquatic ecosystem.     

Über den Einfluß der Adaptationstemperatur und des Salzgehaltes auf die Hitze-und Gefrierresistenz von Enchytraeus albidus (Oligochaeta)

This paper investigates the combined effects of temperature and salinity on resistance-adaptation to temperature in the oligochaete Enchytraeus albidus Henle. This worm shows reasonable resistance-adaptation to both cold (-13.2°C) and heat (35.8 °C). Acclimation to high salinity increases the degree of resistance to temperature extremes. The effect of salinity on heat-resistance, and especially on cold-resistance, decreases with rising adaptation-temperature. While a general effect of cations (Na, K, Ca, Mg) on temperature resistance does not exist, the influence of special ions depends upon ion concentration and adaptation-temperature; addition of Na, K, Ca and Mg reduces cold-resistance in cold-acclimated (5 °C) individuals, while, in warm-acclimated (23 °C) specimens, cold tolerance increases after addition of K and Ca. Heat-resistance decreases in warm-acclimated worms after addition of Mg and Ca. Higher proportions of cations reduce thermal resistance in all cases. Over the salinity range which allows homeo-osmotic conditions (2 to 15‰), E. albidus does not exhibit a constant resistance level (at least not to heat). The cryoprotective agent dimethylsulphoxide is highly effective both in cold and warm acclimated worms.     

Entwicklung der Ökotoxikologie von Pflanzenschutzmitteln in den letzten 25 Jahren: Von ersten Diskussionen über Prüforganismen zur probabilistischen Risikoanalyse

In Europe as well as in Germany a remarkable development within the last 25 years took place in the assessment of ecotoxicological effects of Plant Protection Products (PPPs). The starting point was a comparative, retrospective toxicity testing of some selected indicator species. Then, first attempts of a quantitative, prospective hazard and risk assessment with relevant exposure evaluations were made. Currently a probabilistic risk analysis on the landscape level is discussed.Based on personal experiences within the last decades this contribution will highlight the different developments of the ecotoxicological evaluation of PPPs. At first, the selection of suitable test species and the development of suitable standardized test methods was the main task. Thereafter, the discussions focused more on long-term, chronic effects instead of solely acute ones, the development of focused higher tier studies adjusted to better address the specific properties of a PPP and/or the specific concerns resulting from its application, as well as multi-species and ecosystem approaches. With the availability of suitable computer based models a more precise exposure calculation was possible, which allows a more realistic exposure assessment instead of simple worstcase assumptions. Current discussions focus on probabilistic exposure assessments at a local scale.All these developments took place regardless of the insufficient (political) definition of the protection goal and — as a consequence — the need and extent of appropriate safety factors. The development of ecotoxicology was mostly driven by political trends in Europe, mainly by the harmonized registration of PPPs under the still valid Annexes II and III (1996) of the EU Directive 91/414 and the thereby initiated further progression. In the context of this development more and more scientists were offered interesting job opportunities.     

Über den Einfluß des hydrostatischen Druckes auf die Ultrastrukturen von Zellen und Geweben. II. Untersuchungen an membransystemen von Kiemenepithelien mariner Muscheln und dem Kiemendarm von Branchiostoma lanceolatum

Employing the technique of pressure fixation, high hydrostatic pressure effects on ultrastructures of membrane systems and cell organelles have been investigated, using as material the gill epithelium of marine bivalves and the pharynx epithelium of Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas). Pressure was increased stepwise between 1 and 800 atm. Pressure sensivity of the tissues varies as a function of their structure and function. The degree of disorganization of cell structures increases with increasing pressure. At 300 to 500 atm, the microvilli tend to form small vsicles, which are connected with each other by thin filaments. Especially the basic vesicles become enlarged to oedematous expansions. A variety of membrane disintegrations can be observed on cell organelles, which are connected by membrane-flow. This supports the thesis of the heterogeneity of membranes. Mitochondria reveal destruction of the cristae to an electron-dense material. Membrane lysis can be demonstrated in the endoplasmic reticulum and the plasmalemma of spezialized pharynx cells of B. lanceolatum. The Golgi-apparatus is the only organelle which remains almost unaffected by hystrostatic pressure. There are probably interactions between pressure sensivity of membrane structures and their enzymatic activities.