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1.
There is a “revolving door” between federal agencies and the industries regulated by them. Often, at the end of their industry
tenure, key industry personnel seek employment in government regulatory entities and vice versa. The flow of workers between
the two sectors could bring about good. Industry veterans might have specialized knowledge that could be useful to regulatory
bodies and former government employees could help businesses become and remain compliant with regulations. But the “revolving
door” also poses at least three ethical and policy challenges that have to do with public trust and fair representation. First,
the presence of former key industry personnel on review boards could adversely impact the public’s confidence in regulatory
decisions about new technology products, including agrifood biotechnologies. Second, the ‘‘revolving door’’ may result in
policy decisions about technologies that are biased in favor of industry interests. And third, the ‘‘revolving door’’ virtually
guarantees industry a voice in the policy-making process, even though other stakeholders have no assurance that their concerns
will be addressed by regulatory agencies. We believe these three problems indicate a failure of regulatory review for new
technologies. The review process lacks credibility because, at the very least, it is procedurally biased in favor of industry
interests. We argue that prohibiting the flow of personnel between regulatory agencies and industry would not be a satisfactory
solution to the three problems of public trust and just representation. To address them, regulatory entities must reject the
traditional notion of objectivity. Instead they should adopt the conception of objectivity developed by Sandra Harding and
re-configure their regulatory review on the basis of it. That will ensure that a heterogeneous group of stakeholders is at
the decision-making table. The fair representation of interests of different constituencies in the review process could do
much to inspire warranted public confidence in regulatory protocols and decisions. 相似文献
2.
Tiga Neya Akwasi. A. Abunyewa Oble Neya Benewende J-B Zoungrana Kangbeni Dimobe Hypolite Tiendrebeogo John Magistro 《Environmental management》2020,65(2):203-211
Agroforestry plays an important role in climate mitigation through atmospheric carbon removal by photosynthetic activity of tree. However, the carbon sequestration potential of smallholder’s agroforestry’s parklands is not well documented in Burkina Faso. Therefore, agroforestry parkland of smallholders’ farmers in three climatic zones was studied. Thirty household farmlands in each climatic zone representing about 35 ha were selected on which systematic woody species inventory and dendrometry data collections were undertaken. Nondestructive method using fitted allometrics equations was used to compute carbon stock. Sustainability analysis of carbon sequestration potential was done using ]0–10], ]10–40], and ]40–110 cm] diameter class as long term, medium term, and short term, respectively. The balance between marketable carbon value and the trade-off from tree conservation of three major crops was also analyzed. The results revealed 24.71 ± 5.84 tCO2 ha−1, 28.35 ± 5.84 tCO2 ha−1, and 33.86 ± 5.84 tCO2 ha−1 in Ouahigouya, Sapouy, and Bouroum-Bouroum at p < 0.1 respectively. Long- and short-term carbon sequestration potential was attributed to Ouahigouya with 1.82 and 68.03%, respectively. With, the medium term analysis Sapouy came first with 71.71% of total amount of carbon. The marketable carbon value was less than trade-off value resulting in keeping trees and crop production. The balance analysis revealed that carbon payment system promoted by REDD+ initiative will be profitable and compensable to smallholder farmers effort to plant and keep tree when the tCO2 ha−1 price will be around US$ 4.00. By taking into account farmers’ interests and profitability on carbon market will be the most relevant incentive method to enhance carbon stock in agroforestry parkland. 相似文献
3.
Extensive research has been conducted globally into conceptual frameworks for ecosystem services, the most notable being the
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (Millennium ecosystem assessment: ecosystems and human well-being; a framework for assessment.
World Resources Institute, Washington, DC, pp 51, 53–55, 2005). The South East Queensland (SEQ) Ecosystem Services Framework (Australia) aims to provide the tools to enable government,
industry, business, researchers, non-government organizations and land managers to apply the concept of ecosystem services
in their planning and management practices. This article describes the Framework and the process that has produced matrices
and maps that identify and illustrate the linkages between ecosystems, ecosystem functions, ecosystem services and the community’s
well-being. The matrices and maps derived can identify areas in the region where the most ecosystem services are generated.
This allows areas to be considered as valuable natural assets of the region, deserving appropriate protection measures or
significant offsets if they are diminished or degraded in any way. Although the Framework requires further refinement and
ongoing development, the process applied and the products produced has enabled decision makers to turn the concept of ecosystem
services into practical application in SEQ. 相似文献
4.
The Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, the landward reach of the San Francisco Estuary, provides habitat for threatened delta smelt,
endangered winter-run Chinook salmon, and other species of concern. It is also the location of huge freshwater diversion facilities
that entrain large numbers of fish. Reducing the entrainment of listed fishes into these facilities has required curtailment
of pumping, reducing the reliability of water deliveries. We reviewed the first 5 years (2001–2005) of the Environmental Water
Account (EWA), a program instituted to resolve conflicts between protecting listed fishes and providing a reliable water supply.
The EWA provided fishery agencies with control over 0.2–0.4 km3 of water to be used for fish protection at no cost to users of exported water, and fish agencies guaranteed no disruption
of water supply for fish protection. The EWA was successful in reducing uncertainty in water supply; however, its contribution
to the recovery of listed fishes was unclear. We estimated the effectiveness of the EWA to be modest, increasing the survival
of winter-run Chinook salmon by 0–6% (dependent on prescreen mortality), adult delta smelt by 0–1%, and juvenile delta smelt
by 2–4%. Allocating EWA water for a single life stage of one species could provide larger gains in survival. An optimally
allocated EWA of equal size to the median of the first 5 years could increase abundance of juvenile delta smelt up to 7% in
the springs of dry years. If the EWA is to become a long-term program, estimates of efficacy should be refined. If the program
is to be held accountable for quantitative increases in fish populations, it will be necessary to integrate scientific, possibly
experimental, approaches. 相似文献
5.
The concept of resilience is now frequently invoked by natural resource agencies in the US. This reflects growing trends within
ecology, conservation biology, and other disciplines acknowledging that social–ecological systems require management approaches
recognizing their complexity. In this paper, we examine the concept of resilience and the manner in which some legal and regulatory
frameworks governing federal natural resource agencies have difficulty accommodating it. We then use the U.S. Forest Service’s
employment of resilience as an illustration of the challenges ahead. 相似文献
6.
Toronto is among the fastest-growing urban regions in North America. Regional efforts to preserve rural landscapes and remnant
habitat have had variable success. In the 1990s, significant conflict emerged over proposals to build large housing developments
on portions of the Oak Ridges Moraine, a 160-km stretch of environmentally sensitive land along the city’s northern edge.
After years of planning conflict, Ontario’s provincial government created the Oak Ridges Moraine Conservation Plan, an Act
of the Ontario Legislature. The Plan represents a dramatic change in Ontario’s approach to conservation planning. We examine
the development and implementation of the Conservation Plan as an example of environmental planning policy in a complex urban
setting. Data from interviews with policy actors, planning agency documents, and geospatial sources are used to construct
an analysis and discussion of the Plan and its implementation. From a policy research perspective, the evolution and implementation
of the Plan require analysis and monitoring to better understand how such approaches can best be implemented. The Conservation
Plan marks a change in policy in Ontario, and the implementation process highlights challenges in putting conservation plans
into practice. 相似文献
7.
Federal land management agencies, such as the USDA Forest Service, have expanded the role of recreation partners reflecting
constrained growth in appropriations and broader societal trends towards civic environmental governance. Partnerships with
individual volunteers, service groups, commercial outfitters, and other government agencies provide the USDA Forest Service
with the resources necessary to complete projects and meet goals under fiscal constraints. Existing partnership typologies
typically focus on collaborative or strategic alliances and highlight organizational dimensions (e.g., structure and process)
defined by researchers. This paper presents a partner typology constructed from USDA Forest Service partnership practitioners’
conceptualizations of 35 common partner types. Multidimensional scaling of data from unconstrained pile sorts identified 3
distinct cultural dimensions of recreation partners—specifically, partnership character, partner impact, and partner motivations—that
represent institutional, individual, and socio-cultural cognitive domains. A hierarchical agglomerative cluster analysis provides
further insight into the various domains of agency personnel’s conceptualizations. While three dimensions with high reliability
(RSQ = 0.83) and corresponding hierarchical clusters illustrate commonality between agency personnel’s partnership suppositions,
this study also reveals variance in personnel’s familiarity and affinity for specific partnership types. This real-world perspective
on partner types highlights that agency practitioners not only make strategic choices when selecting and cultivating partnerships
to accomplish critical task, but also elect to work with partners for the primary purpose of providing public service and
fostering land stewardship. 相似文献
8.
This article describes the history of the Coachella Valley Multiple Species Habitat Conservation Plan (CVMSHCP), in the Riverside
County region of Southern California. When this collaborative biodiversity conservation planning process began, in 1994, local
participants and supporters had numerous factors working in their favor. Yet, as of April 2007, nearly 13 years had passed
without an approved plan. This is a common problem. Many multiple species habitat conservation plans now take more than a
decade to complete, and the long duration of these processes often results in negative consequences. The CVMSHCP process became
bogged down—despite strong scientific input and many political advantages—due to problematic relationships between the Plan’s
local supporters, its municipal signatory parties, and officials from the state and federal wildlife agencies, particularly
the regional office of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. This case study demonstrates the crucial importance of institutional
structures and relationships, process management, and timeliness in habitat conservation planning. We conclude by offering
several related recommendations for future HCP processes. 相似文献
9.
Emmanuel K. Yiridoe 《Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics》2000,13(1-2):101-120
Although various studies have shown that farmers believe there is the need for a producer-led initiative to address the environmental
problems from agriculture, farmers in several Canadian provinces have been reluctant to widely participate in Environmental
Farm Plan (EFP) programs. Few studies have examined the key issues associated with adopting EFP programs based on farmers’,
as opposed to policy makers’, perspectives on why producers are reluctant to participate in the program. A study adapting
Van Raaij’s (1981) conceptual model of the decision-making environment of the firm, and prospect theory on value functions
associated with the gains and losses from risky choices can be used to characterize how farmers perceive potential risks in
environmental farm planning. This framework can be used to assert that farmers are concerned about risks of public disclosure
of potentially incriminating environmental information from farms because the EFP program requirements for identification
and extensive documentation of farm information is perceived by farmers as facilitating the accessibility of environmental
information to the public, and public investigative efforts. Although the EFP program does not explicitly generate information
about the environmental conditions of a farm nor the disclosure of such information to the public, it creates the possibility
of generating and divulging potentially incriminating information that the farmer may want to treat as confidential. Yet,
alone, these risks of public disclosure concerns should not prevent farmers from participating in the EFP. Awareness of and
participation in environmental farm planning can be increased if farmers and policy makers understand what the risks are,
and how they arise. Aspects of the EFP process that have the potential to generate risk of public disclosure concerns relate
to farm reviews, documentation and record keeping, and corrective action plans. There are legal and policy instruments that
can offer various forms of protection and help minimize such risks, and these need to be assessed. 相似文献
10.
Per Kudsk 《The Environmentalist》2008,28(1):49-55
Public concern of possible effects of pesticides on human health and the environment has lead to an increased pressure on
farmers to optimise their use of pesticides. Reducing pesticide doses below the recommended doses whenever possible is a straightforward
approach to reduce the risk of adverse side effects. To adopt this approach decision-making has to be improved. The parameters
to consider optimising herbicide doses are: weed flora and growth stage, crop competitiveness, climatic conditions, application
technique, formulation/adjuvant and combination with other pesticides. In Denmark this information is provided to farmers
through the decision support system ‹Plant Protection Online’. Based on input on weed species and densities, climatic conditions,
soil type, crop cultivar and expected yield ‹Plant Protection Online’ will provide farmers with optimum herbicide solution
usually with doses lower than standard recommended doses. 相似文献
11.
For the last 20 years, human–wildlife conflicts have been rapidly increasing in towns. Although people want “greener” cities,
the expansion of disliked species causes problems that are difficult to manage and to reduce. The complexity of the numerous
factors involved in these human–wildlife relations needs the development of a comprehensive tool for urban planners. Today,
with the development of computers and geographical information systems, it is easier to analyze and combine different spatial
data as methods used for the management of risks in studies of natural hazards. Here we present a method for assessing and
mapping the risk in cases of human–wildlife conflict. An application to starling management in a town in western France will
show the efficiency of our methods to combine information given by a network of experts and to highlight higher risk sites.
The map of risk provides a spatial result useful for comprehension, communication between people and agencies, and public
education. 相似文献
12.
LOEW B 《Environmental management》2000,26(Z1):S15-S21
Drawing from experiences gained from the development and implementation of four approved habitat conservation plans (HCPs), I describe the goals and strategies used by the nine local government members of the Riverside County Habitat Conservation Agency (RCHCA) to reconcile conflicts among a rapidly growing population and the need to conserve the habitat of a number of declining wildlife species in western Riverside County, California. Several important goals have been pursued by RCHCA member governments in their sponsorship of multiple-species habitat conservation plans (MSHCPs), including (1) establishing certainty and control over future uses of land; (2) eliminating project-by-project negotiations with federal and state wildlife agencies; (3) coordinating mitigation obligations under the Endangered Species Act, Clean Water Act, California Environmental Quality Act, and other federal and state laws; (4) reducing conflict and litigation resulting from land development activities; and (5) ensuring that wildlife conservation activities are conducted in a manner that permits local governments to perform those functions necessary to maintain public health, safety, and welfare. I also describe the emergence of strategies by local governments to achieve MSHCP goals, including (1) use of an inclusive planning process that seeks to build consensus among affected interests; (2) extensive involvement of federal and state wildlife agencies in the preparation of MSHCP documents; (3) management of public lands to support MSHCP conservation objectives; (4) encouragement of voluntary conservation by private property owners through incentive programs; and (5) active solicitation of federal and state funding for MSHCP implementation activities. 相似文献
13.
Cindy Sage 《The Environmentalist》2012,32(2):144-156
The meltdown and release of radioactivity (ionizing radiation) from four damaged nuclear reactors at the Fukushima Nuclear
Facility in Japan in March 2011 continues to contaminate air and ocean water even 1 year later. Chronic exposure to low-dose
ionizing radiation will occur over large populations well into the future. This has caused grave concern among researchers
and the public over the very long period of time expected for decommissioning alone (current estimate from official sources
is 30–40 years based on TEPCO in Mid-and long-term roadmap towards the decommissioning of Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power
units 1–4, 2011) and the presumed adverse effects of chronic, low-dose ionizing radiation on children, adults and the environment. Ultimately,
radioactive materials from Fukushima will circulate for many years, making health impacts a predictable concern for many generations
(Yasunari et al. in PNAS 108(49):19530–19534, 2011). There is long-standing scientific evidence to suggest that low-dose ionizing radiation (LD-IR) and low-intensity non-ionizing
electromagnetic radiation (LI-NIER) in the form of extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields and radiofrequency radiation
(RFR) share similar biological effects. Public health implications are significant for reconstruction efforts to rebuild in
post-Fukushima Japan. It is relevant to identify and reduce exposure pathways for chronic, low-dose ionizing radiation in
post-Fukushima Japan given current scientific knowledge. Intentional planning, rather than conventional planning, is needed
to reduce concomitant chronic low-intensity exposure to non-ionizing radiation. These are reasonably well-established risks
to health in the scientific literature, as evidenced by their classification by World Health Organization International Agency
for Research on Cancer as Possible Human Carcinogens. Reducing preventable, adverse health exposures in the newly rebuilt
environment to both LD-IR and LI-NIER is an achievable goal for Japan. Recovery and reconstruction efforts in Japan to restore
the communications and energy infrastructure, in particular, should pursue strategies for reduction and/or prevention of both
kinds of exposures. The design life of buildings replaced today is probably 35–50 years into the future. Cumulative health
risks may be somewhat mitigated if the double exposure (to both chronic low-dose IR from the Fukushima reactors and LI-NIER
[EMF and RFR] in new buildings and infrastructure) can be dealt with effectively in early planning and design in Japan’s reconstruction. 相似文献
14.
Bhatnagar YV Wangchuk R Prins HH Van Wieren SE Mishra C 《Environmental management》2006,38(6):934-941
An emerging conflict with Trans-Himalayan pastoral communities in Ladakh’s Changthang Plateau threatens the conservation prospects
of the kiang (Equus kiang) in India. It is locally believed that Changthang’s rangelands are overstocked with kiang, resulting in forage competition
with livestock. Here, we provide a review and preliminary data on the causes of this conflict. Erosion of people’s tolerance
of the kiang can be attributed to factors such as the loss of traditional pastures during an Indo-Chinese war fought in 1962,
immigration of refugees from Tibet, doubling of the livestock population in about 20 years, and increasing commercialization
of cashmere (pashmina) production. The perception of kiang overstocking appears misplaced, because our range-wide density estimate of 0.24 kiang
km−2 (± 0.44, 95% CL) is comparable to kiang densities reported from Tibet. A catastrophic decline during the war and subsequent
recovery of the kiang population apparently led to the overstocking perception in Ladakh. In the Hanle Valley, an important
area for the kiang, its density was higher (0.56 km−2) although even here, we estimated the total forage consumed by kiang to be only 3–4% compared to 96–97% consumed by the large
livestock population (78 km−2). Our analysis nevertheless suggests that at a localized scale, some herders do face serious forage competition from kiang
in key areas such as moist sedge meadows, and thus management strategies also need to be devised at this scale. In-depth socioeconomic
surveys are needed to understand the full extent of the conflicts, and herder-centered participatory resolution needs to be
facilitated to ensure that a sustainable solution for livelihoods and kiang conservation is achieved. 相似文献
15.
Integrated Resource Management: Moving from Rhetoric to Practice in Australian Agriculture 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
/ Implementing the concept of sustainability through integrated approaches to natural resource management poses enormous challenges for both the rural communities and government agencies concerned. This paper reviews the underlying rhetoric of sustainable agricultural systems and the integrated resource management paradigm and identifies some of the challenges being experienced in translating this rhetoric into practice. A relatively recently implemented community-based integrated catchment management (ICM) process in a rural community in northeast Australia is examined in terms of some of the lessons learned that may be relevant to other similar integrated resource management (IRM) processes. It reveals a pragmatic, opportunistic, and evolving implementation process based on adaptive learning rather than a more traditional "rational" planning approach. Some essential characteristics of a community-based IRM process are identified, including fostering communication; providing a structure that fosters cooperation and facilities coordination among community, industry, and government agencies; the integration of IRM principles into local government planning schemes; and an emergent strategic approach to IRM program implementation. We conclude by identifying some essential characteristics of an IRM process that can assist a community to adapt to, and manage change for, sustainable resource use. 相似文献
16.
Earthworms’ body works as a ‘biofilter’ and they have been found to remove the 5 days’ BOD (BOD5) by over 90%, COD by 80–90%, total dissolved solids (TDS) by 90–92%, and the total suspended solids (TSS) by 90–95% from
wastewater by the general mechanism of ‘ingestion’ and biodegradation of organic wastes, heavy metals, and solids from wastewater
and also by their ‘absorption’ through body walls. Earthworms increase the hydraulic conductivity and natural aeration by
granulating the clay particles. They also grind the silt and sand particles, increasing the total specific surface area, which
enhances the ability to ‘adsorb’ the organics and inorganic from the wastewater. Intensification of soil processes and aeration
by the earthworms enable the soil stabilization and filtration system to become effective and smaller in size. Suspended solids
are trapped on top of the vermifilter and processed by earthworms and fed to the soil microbes immobilized in the vermifilter.
There is no sludge formation in the process which requires additional expenditure on landfill disposal. This is also an odor-free
process and the resulting vermifiltered water is clean and disinfected enough to be reused for farm irrigation and in parks
and gardens
G. Bharambe—GU & Research Assistant (Under Rajiv K. Sinha), U. Chaudhari—GU (Worked on vermiculture project). 相似文献
17.
Hatch L Clark C Merrick R Van Parijs S Ponirakis D Schwehr K Thompson M Wiley D 《Environmental management》2008,42(5):735-752
In 2006, we used the U.S. Coast Guard’s Automatic Identification System (AIS) to describe patterns of large commercial ship
traffic within a U.S. National Marine Sanctuary located off the coast of Massachusetts. We found that 541 large commercial
vessels transited the greater sanctuary 3413 times during the year. Cargo ships, tankers, and tug/tows constituted 78% of
the vessels and 82% of the total transits. Cargo ships, tankers, and cruise ships predominantly used the designated Boston
Traffic Separation Scheme, while tug/tow traffic was concentrated in the western and northern portions of the sanctuary. We
combined AIS data with low-frequency acoustic data from an array of nine autonomous recording units analyzed for 2 months
in 2006. Analysis of received sound levels (10–1000 Hz, root-mean-square pressure re 1 μPa ± SE) averaged 119.5 ± 0.3 dB at
high-traffic locations. High-traffic locations experienced double the acoustic power of less trafficked locations for the
majority of the time period analyzed. Average source level estimates (71–141 Hz, root-mean-square pressure re 1 μPa ± SE)
for individual vessels ranged from 158 ± 2 dB (research vessel) to 186 ± 2 dB (oil tanker). Tankers were estimated to contribute
2 times more acoustic power to the region than cargo ships, and more than 100 times more than research vessels. Our results
indicate that noise produced by large commercial vessels was at levels and within frequencies that warrant concern among managers
regarding the ability of endangered whales to maintain acoustic contact within greater sanctuary waters.
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. 相似文献
18.
Cerveny LK Blahna DJ Stern MJ Mortimer MJ Predmore SA Freeman J 《Environmental management》2011,48(3):644-657
U.S. Forest Service managers are required to incorporate social and biophysical science information in planning and environmental
analysis. The use of science is mandated by the National Environmental Policy Act, the National Forest Management Act, and
U.S. Forest Service planning rules. Despite the agency’s emphasis on ‘science-based’ decision-making, little is known about
how science is actually used in recreation planning and management. This study investigated the perceptions of Forest Service
interdisciplinary (ID) team leaders for 106 NEPA projects dealing with recreation and travel management between 2005 and 2008.
Our survey data show how managers rate the importance of social and biophysical science compared to other potential ‘success
factors’ in NEPA assessments. We also explore how team leaders value and use multi-disciplinary tools for recreation-related
assessments. Results suggest that managers employ a variety of recreation planning tools in NEPA projects, but there appears
to be no common understanding or approach for how or when these tools are incorporated. The Recreation Opportunity Spectrum
(ROS) was the most frequently used planning tool, but the Visitor Experience and Resource Protection (VERP) framework was
the most consistently valued tool by those who used it. We recommend further evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of
each planning tool and future development of procedures to select appropriate planning tools for use in recreation-related
NEPA assessments. 相似文献
19.
Current evolution of wireless personal communications has necessitated a comprehensive understanding of electromagnetic interactions
between handset antennas and nearby human body. In this work the handset–human body interactions were evaluated in various
configurations (with and without user’s hand; with and without user’s head, and combinations of them) in order to obtain statistical
averages of the overall performance for system link evaluations. The measurements were performed using the random-field measurement
(RFM) method, and thus the acquisition of large amounts of data about human–mobile phone interactions in typical operating
environment with measured the received RF signal strength (RXLEV), and the output power level (TXLEV) on mobile station. The
RXLEV and the TXLEV was measured over the air interface in the networks on two Bulgarian GSM mobile operators (Mtel and Vivatel).
Both uplink and downlink measurements were performed in urban area in three cities. Each measurements were carried out in
a building included both line-of-sight and non-line-of-sight propagation of the electromagnetic waves between mobile station
and base station. The results showed that the user’s hand and head induces more significant changes on the received RF signal
strength in case when broadcast control channel (BCCH) levels are up to −60 dBm. Also the alterations of receiving RF signal
strength and output power level of the MS are influence stronger from the larger size of the hand and head of user. The influence
from presence of the head and hand of the subscriber in talk position over the alteration of the receiving RF signal strength
is in boundaries from 14.21 dBm to 19.1 dBm (man) and from 8.5 dBm to 12.05 dBm (woman). The presence of the user’s hand and
head increased the output power level of mobile station with 12 dBm to 14 dBm (man) and with 10 dBm to 12 dBm (woman) compare
to output power level without user’s hand and head. 相似文献
20.
With record-breaking tourist visits in Kenya in 2005–2006, communities near the country’s renowned protected areas must undertake
or revisit planning efforts to conserve and enhance the region’s natural, social, and economic resources. This article examines
the differences between two stakeholder groups in the Samburu region of central Kenya: (1) protected area leadership and staff;
and (2) members of the communities adjacent to the protected areas. Based on the results and analysis of 30 in-depth interviews,
the authors identify differences between protected area staff and their community members regarding perceptions about communication
between the two groups, and the economic benefits of tourism. The different stakeholders agreed, however, about challenges
related to equitable distribution of tourism-based employment and revenue. The results indicate a need to reach consensus
about what constitutes sufficient communication between national reserves and their community, and to what extent tourism-related
revenue and employment should be distributed within the region. A discussion of the potential role of indicators and standards
to make such decisions is presented. 相似文献