HIV and AIDS: Responding to a threat to education for sustainable development

The article seeks to sensitize the development community, particularly outside the education sector, about the issues surrounding education as a vehicle for promoting sustainable development in an AIDS environment in Africa. By illustrating how the epidemic impacts education sector staff as well as parents and students at all levels, the article intends to suggest how national authorities, NGOs and donor agencies can work out strategies to enhance the role of education in promoting sustainable development in Africa. Analysis will demonstrate how the AIDS epidemic weakens the education sector, particularly in countries with a generalized epidemic (defined as more than 3% of the adult population being HIV‐positive), undermining the sector's ability to contribute to general literacy and sustainable development. The article will demonstrate that HIV and AIDS is still not fully accepted as an educational issue, which has hampered efforts to deal with its ravages in the educational sector. The need for holistic policy frameworks for supporting teachers and administrators living with HIV and AIDS will be discussed as well as how changes in curriculum and better relations with the community are important in addressing the needs of students. The article will highlight options for developing innovative responses to HIV and AIDS in African education, showing how different forms of education can serve as vehicles for responding to the challenges of the epidemic. The examples emphasize the importance of learner‐centered instruction and partnerships with the health sector and other resources needed in an AIDS‐affected environment. Key messages of the article are that the HIV and AIDS epidemic is a multi‐sectoral problem and that responding to it effectively in the education sector requires coherent responses that address the needs of learners and instructors, including those who are personally affected or infected by HIV and AIDS. Adapting the Education for Sustainable Development initiative to address the challenges posed by the epidemic must be supported by policy development, leadership and advocacy. Diverse partnerships are essential, as the education sector alone cannot deal with the challenge of HIV and AIDS to sustainable development.     

She Came, She Saw, She Sowed: Re-negotiating Gender-Responsive Priorities for Effective Development of Agricultural Biotechnology in Sub-Saharan Africa

In this paper, we argue for the importance of incorporating a gendered perspective for the effective development of sustainable agricultural biotechnology systems in sub-Saharan Africa. Priority setting for agricultural policy and project development requires attention to gender issues specific to the demands of agricultural biotechnology. This is essential for successfully addressing food security and poverty reduction in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). There has been a great deal of debate and literature on the implications of gender in agricultural development and policy. However, the implications of gender in agricultural biotechnology and have received relatively less attention, especially in SSA. Based on interviews with key stakeholders in agricultural biotechnology across SSA, review of pertinent literature and field observations, we have found that incorporating a gendered perspective is critical for the sustainable development of agricultural biotechnology and requires attention in five areas: the inclusion of women, particularly women farmers, in decision-making around biotech/genetically modified (GM) crop and trait selection; equal representation of women as men in education for agricultural science and in agricultural biotechnology research and development professions; greater involvement of women in extension services and farmers’ associations for successful delivery of information about biotech crops equality between men and women in access to resources for biotech/GM crop cultivation; and increased control for women farmers over biotech/GM crop management and income generation. We explain the consequences of failing to include such gender-responsive considerations into priority setting for agricultural biotechnology development and policy in SSA and provide recommendations for how policy makers and project partners of development initiatives can avoid such oversights.     

How have reforms fuelled the expansion of artisanal mining? Evidence from sub-Saharan Africa

This paper investigates whether and how World Bank mining sector reforms have fuelled the expansion of illegal artisanal mining activity in Sub-Saharan Africa. In doing so, the analysis examines three issues. First, the emerging correlation between reforms and poverty, mainly a result of increased unemployment caused by Structural Adjustment Programmes and concurrent privatisation of state-owned enterprises, is explored. Second, the possibility that reform of large-scale mining has decreased available land for peasant farming as well as legalised small-scale mining activity is discussed. Finally, the notion that the regularisation of informal mining activities has been an exceedingly bureaucratic procedure in Africa, therefore providing individuals with little incentive to operate within the legal domain, is examined. Faced with few employment prospects, a growing number of Africans are pursuing employment in the artisanal mining sector, a worrying prospect given its intimate association with environmental degradation and HIV/AIDS.     

Hydrocarbon exploration and production in sub-Saharan Africa

In 1988, sub-Saharan Africa provided only 2.3 million bbllday of oil and 4 thousand million m³ of natural gas, representing respectively, approximately 4% and less than 1% of the world's supplies of those energy sources. This is surprising, given the extensive land area and the presence of sedimentary basins in many of the countries of the region. This paper explores the reasons for this relatively low production, details exploration efforts to date and makes recommendations for increasing investment in petroleum exploration in sub-Saharan Africa.     

The African electric power sector in the context of an acute financial crisis

There has been a sharp downturn in the building of electricity production and distribution facilities in sub-Saharan Africa due to economic and financial constraints. In part this was due to the steady decline in GDP in sub-Saharan Africa throughout the 1980s. The slackening growth of demand and the continuing decline in existing generating capacity have led to a shift in emphasis towards the restructuring of electricity companies, management improvements and the rehabilitation of existing plants rather than new investment in production and distribution facilities. Nevertheless, valid doubts remain as to the ability of the African electricity sector to mobilize sufficient resources in the medium term to ensure its development.     

The miombo woodlands at the cross roads: Potential threats, sustainable livelihoods, policy gaps and challenges

The Miombo, the most extensive tropical woodland formation of Africa directly supports the livelihoods of over 100 million people through the provision of many tree products and ecosystem services essential to both the rural and urban communities. While the destruction of the Miombo has often been blamed on the rural communities dwelling near the forest resources, many urban dwellers depend heavily on the various products derived from the woodlands. This paper highlights the importance of the Miombo in the livelihoods of rural people, the potential threats to this ecosystem and opportunities for its sustainable management. About 70% of energy consumed in southern Africa is in the form of fuelwood or charcoal. The economic importance of the Miombo especially from non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is usually understated due to their perceived non-economic value yet they play an important role in sustaining livelihoods of forest dependent people in the miombo ecoregion. The Miombo also contributes to health services through the use of medicinal plant and products, in some cases, contributing up to 80% to rural health, including helping in coping with effects of HIV/AIDS, malaria and several diseases. The possibility of developing payment for environmental services schemes through public–private partnerships, and community-based sustainable management models are proposed. Through conservation and commercialization of some of the products and services, there is a potential to provide income and improve the livelihood of people involved in the trade along the value chain.     

Urbanization and the Environment in Southern Africa: Towards a Managed Framework for the Sustainability of Cities

In sub-Saharan Africa, Southern Africa is the most urbanized region. This dynamic is rapidly transforming the nature of Southern African human settlements which, in turn, has a chain reaction of consequences from negative environmental impact to the need to develop policy for the sustainability of the region's cities. This paper examines the relationship between urbanization trends and environmental change in Southern Africa, and then advocates and discusses priority areas of a managed policy framework for a more constructive approach to responding to the challenge of the sustainability of cities in the region. The paper concentrates on those countries that are members of the Southern African Development Community (SADC).     

The incidence of land tenure insecurity in Southern Africa: Policy implications for sustainable development

The study presented in this article used a combination of key informant interviews and a review and synthesis of existing country level literature to identify the major sources of land tenure insecurity in six Southern African countries: Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zambia. Findings reveal that the main causes of land tenure insecurity experienced in Southern Africa include lack of land rights of minority groups, unclear or overlapping land rights, overcrowding, land alienation into leasehold, insecurity of farm workers and farm labour tenants, inappropriate and exploitative administrative practices, land encroachment and illegal settlers and limited women's land rights. The article presents a summary of land tenure security related initiatives that the study countries have or are in the process of adopting. Analysis of these initiatives shows that tenure reforms have focused on changing the law and rules but little has been done to translate new laws into implementable programs; capacity building; prioritization of resources to support tenure reform; provision of complementary policies and incentives; addressing HIV/AIDS‐land tenure related problems; and monitoring and evaluation. The paper contends that these policy issues should be addressed in order to ensure realization of land tenure security for all.     

Multinational oil companies in Nigeria and corporate social responsibility in the HIV/AIDS response in host communities

ABSTRACT

We assess the impact of corporate social responsibility (CSR) of multinational oil companies (MOCs) on HIV/AIDS prevalence in Nigeria’s oil-producing communities. One thousand, two hundred households were sampled across the rural communities of Niger Delta. Using logit model, the main result indicates that General Memorandum of Understandings (GMoUs) have not significantly impacted on factors behind the spread of HIV/AIDs in rural communities. This implies that the impact of the disease on MOCs business, employees and their families, contractors, business partners and the oil communities have not inclined downward. The findings suggest that CSR offers an opportunity for MOCs to help address HIV/AID prevalence through a business case for stakeholders’ health in the region. It calls for MOCs to improve GMoUs health intervention on sensitisation campaigns, funding testing and counselling centres, subsidising anti-retroviral drugs, prevention of mother-to-child transmission, rehabilitation of orphaned and vulnerable children and other cares for people living with AIDS.     

Social responsibility and resource extraction: Are Chinese oil companies different?

In order to meet China’s rapidly increasing demand for oil, Chinese oil companies have been investing in oil production around the world. This article addresses one specific aspect of the more generalized fears expressed about China’s increasing demand for natural resources which is the impact that its oil companies will have on the corporate social responsibility (CSR) movement. In doing so, it limits its analysis to the three main Chinese oil companies: the China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC), the China Petroleum and Chemical Corporation (Sinopec) and the China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) and their investments in sub-Saharan Africa.     

Factors and Actors in Climate Change Mitigation: A Tale of Two South African Cities

South Africa, being a developing nation, is faced with many challenges, including poverty and one of the world's highest HIV/AIDS infection rates. It is within this context that this paper presents an overview of the role played by major stakeholders in climate change mitigation policies, with the focus on two South African cities, namely Cape Town and Johannesburg. This paper aims to identify the internal and external factors that act as barriers to, or promote, climate change mitigation policy development and implementation in South African cities. These may take the form of the city's internal structures, political interventions and support, and external factors including partnerships with outside organizations, including all tiers of government, non-governmental organizations and academic institutions. The media and an energy crisis in the Cape prove to play an unexpected role in assisting Cape Town to implement climate change mitigation measures.     

What drives large South African corporations to invest in sub‐Saharan Africa? CEO's perspectives and implications for FDI policies

Foreign direct investment (FDI) flowing into Africa is highly diverse in terms of the origin of the investors, size of the firms, and the sectors of activity. The motivations and factors driving firms' decisions to invest in Africa are equally diverse. A direct survey of senior management in South African firms that are operating in sub-Saharan Africa reveals that the drivers of foreign investment as well as the risks and the strategies to overcome them differ markedly between sectors. A further finding is that there is a limited pool of FDI promotion policies and incentives that governments can institute that are effective in impacting South African corporations' investment decisions. As a consequence, broad-based FDI promotion policies aimed at attracting FDI across all investor groups are likely to have limited impact in attracting FDI from any particular investor group, or in attracting any FDI from multinational companies similar to the South African companies studied here. Such broad based policies probably need to be complemented with policies targeting those specific firms or sectors which countries hope to attract.     

Low priorities for black american leaders: Environmental and occupational health

Summary Black Americans face increased health risks from environmental and occupational exposures when compared with white Americans, but they also face increased risks for more immediate health problems such as HIV infection/AIDS, alcohol and drug abuse, violence, and infant mortality. A survey of more than 1,000 black public health and black political leaders solicited opinions on the relative importance of 1) environmental health and 2) occupational health and safety compared with other public health problems faced by the black community. The survey also determined opinions about the degree to which specific health problems are amenable to change for black Americans and who (or what agency) should spearhead efforts aimed at specific public health objectives.Responding black leaders felt environmental health and occupational health and safety goals were somewhat important for black Americans, but among the most difficult of all public health objectives to meet. Those who felt that the above objectives were very important identified the federal govemment as the primarily responsible party for seeing that the objectives are met.Dr Dona Schneider is Assistant Professor of Public Health at Rutgers University. She teaches epidemiology and biostatistics for the New Jersey Graduate Program in Public Health at the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, and holds memberships in both the Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute and the National Institute for Environmental and Health Sciences. Her research spans the health problems of children and minorities. She regularly reviews books for theEnvironmentalist.     

The forgotten resource curse: South Africa's poor experience with mineral extraction

Studies of the resource curse as it affects African states abound, yet few deal specifically with the experiences of South Africa. The inability of countries to convert natural resource wealth into income and improved development measures remains highly pertinent and is especially apparent in Africa's largest economy. This paper takes a unique approach to study the resource curse by comparing South Africa's political economy with the existing resource curse literature. Using data from international organisations, studies of poverty and qualitative evidence this paper examines South Africa's experience with mineral extraction. It is found that South Africa has experienced many of the symptoms outlined in the resource curse literature including relatively slow GDP growth, gross inequalities, entrenched poverty and the creation of a rentier state. Overall, it is concluded that South Africa has failed to benefit from natural resource wealth and can be classified as a resource cursed state. Not only has mineral wealth failed to benefit much of South Africa's population, sections of society have actually been harmed through the process of mineral extraction. This paper is the first to examine South Africa in light of the current resource curse literature and to conclude that the state far more closely resembles its sub-Saharan African neighbours than its upper-middle income peers.     

Are consumers willing to pay for conservation agriculture? The case of white maize in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Throughout the low-income world, agricultural producers have a motivation to slash-and-burn rainforests as they cannot afford inorganic fertilizers. Farmers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), who are predominantly women, are often forced to walk long distances to cultivate more productive lands, when fertility near their villages is reduced. On their way and while working away from home, women become targets for rape. Adopting conservation agriculture (CA) could help mitigate deforestation and potentially create a safer environment for women. Limited knowledge about the benefits of CA across countries in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has hindered its adoption. Taking these impediments into account, we estimate if consumers in the DRC are willing to pay (WTP) a premium for CA, using maize flour as the medium. By means of a double-bounded dichotomous choice valuation method, 600 consumers in Bukavu, DRC, were surveyed about their willingness-to-pay for CA-produced maize. Our study finds that only those consumers who identify themselves as farmers are WTP a premium. This study indicates that if CA adoption is to spread in the DRC, it will likely need to happen via increased yields or reduced costs before the farm gate and not premiums after the farm gate.     

Factors and Actors in Climate Change Mitigation: A Tale of Two South African Cities

Abstract

South Africa, being a developing nation, is faced with many challenges, including poverty and one of the world's highest HIV/AIDS infection rates. It is within this context that this paper presents an overview of the role played by major stakeholders in climate change mitigation policies, with the focus on two South African cities, namely Cape Town and Johannesburg. This paper aims to identify the internal and external factors that act as barriers to, or promote, climate change mitigation policy development and implementation in South African cities. These may take the form of the city's internal structures, political interventions and support, and external factors including partnerships with outside organizations, including all tiers of government, non-governmental organizations and academic institutions. The media and an energy crisis in the Cape prove to play an unexpected role in assisting Cape Town to implement climate change mitigation measures.     

Strengthening Agricultural Research in Africa

Training programmes that involve agricultural researchers with farmers and extension field-workers have helped national agricultural research systems in sub-Saharan Africa to improve their communication with farmers. The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) has worked with national crop research institutes and agricultural extension agencies in building communication links with farmers. In a continent where population growth still outstrips food production increases, feedback from farmers on performance of high-yielding crop varieties and on new farming techniques is essential in boosting food production.     

Corporate Social Responsibility in the extractive industries: Experiences from developing countries

This paper introduces a special issue on ‘Corporate Social Responsibility in the extractive industries: experiences from developing countries’. Drawing upon case study analysis from Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, the papers in this issue broaden understanding of how multinational mining and oil and gas companies have embraced the CSR challenge and responded to criticisms of their performance in developing countries. This paper provides an introduction to the debate on CSR in the extractive industries in developing countries, reviewing the key issues examined on this subject to date.     

Challenges with eradicating illegal mining in Ghana: A perspective from the grassroots

This paper argues that artisanal mining communities are somewhat bound to their operations, and helps explain why formalisation, alternative livelihood projects and military intervention—the traditional strategies employed by governments to tackle illegal mining—have proved ineffective. Findings from recent research carried out in Noyem (Eastern Region of Ghana) are used to illustrate why illegal artisanal mining is such a deeply rooted activity in sub-Saharan Africa. The analysis provides four explanations in support of this: a heavy involvement of traditional leaders in operations; the mindsets of many operators toward alternative income-earning activities; the numerous and diverse range of employment opportunities provided by the sector; and the level of investment in operations.     

The discrepant epidemiology of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV)

The Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) is a newly emerged infection in humans affecting the Arabian Peninsula, Europe, and North Africa. The source and persistence of the infection in humans remains unknown. The aim of this paper was to apply a risk analysis approach to the epidemiology of MERS-CoV and to understand the source of ongoing infections. The epidemiology of MERS-CoV was reviewed and compared to SARS. Each observed feature of MERS-CoV epidemiology was summarized and fitted to either an epidemic or one of two sporadic scenarios (either animal or deliberate release). As of May 2014, MERS-CoV has infected over 681 people and killed a further 204 over 2 years. In contrast, there were 8,273 cases and 775 deaths from SARS within 8 months. MERS-CoV has a more sporadic pattern unlike the clear epidemic pattern seen with SARS, and an unusual concentration of cases in the Middle East, without epidemics in other countries to which it has spread. SARS, with a higher reproductive number (R0), was eliminated from humans within 8 months of emerging, yet MERS-CoV, with a low R0 has persisted in humans over a far more prolonged period. This is at odds with the expected behavior of a virus with a low R0, which theoretically should not persist unless there are ongoing introductions of infection into humans, and poses the question “what is the source of continuing infections in humans?” A hospital outbreak in Al Ahsa, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), had a classic epidemic pattern with some human-to-human transmission. However, 3 different strains were identified in that outbreak, an unexpected and unexplained finding for what appears to be a single source outbreak. Since this outbreak in April 2013, there has been a large increase in new cases, mainly in KSA in April and May 2014, with no corresponding epidemics in other countries. Yet MERS-CoV was present in KSA over several mass gatherings (which predispose to epidemics), including the Hajj pilgrimage, without an epidemic arising. Furthermore, although the virus has been identified in bats and camels, the mode of ongoing transmission to humans remains uncertain. Although some cases appear to be transmitted from human to human, and a few have animal or camel exposure, many cases have no history of contact with either animals or human cases. A high proportion of asymptomatic or otherwise undetected cases have been postulated as an explanation for the unusual epidemiology, yet active surveillance does not support this. When the observed data were fitted to different disease patterns, the features of MERS-CoV fit better with a sporadic pattern, with evidence for either deliberate release or an animal source. There are many discrepancies in the observed epidemiology of MERS-CoV, which better fits a sporadic than an epidemic pattern. Possible explanations of the unusual features of the epidemiology include human-to-human transmission with a large proportion of undetected cases; or sporadic ongoing infections from a non-human source; or a combination of both. Possible sources of ongoing sporadic infection in humans include animals (camels appear the most likely source), or deliberate release. The latter could explain 3 strains being present in a single hospital outbreak. Genetic testing should be conducted to determine whether the virus is evolving to be more transmissible. Better ascertainment of mild or asymptomatic cases is also needed. Finally, the discrepant epidemiology warrants critical analysis of all possible explanations, and involvement of all stakeholders in biosecurity, and deliberate release must be seriously considered and at least acknowledged as a possibility.