Comparison of techniques for the detection of helminth ova in drinking water and wastewater.

Many countries use wastewater for irrigation. The World Health Organization established, as reuse guidelines, a maximum value of 1 helminth ovum/L for irrigation. Various techniques for enumerating helminth ova in water have been published. To determine the most adequate method for Mexico, four techniques were compared: the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), membrane-filter, Leeds I, and Faust. Two types of water were used: drinking water and municipal wastewater effluent. Sensitivity, discrimination coefficients, precision, recovery efficiency, and cost were determined. In addition, several unseeded wastewater samples were analyzed. For drinking water, U.S. EPA and the membrane-filter techniques demonstrated comparable results; however, when wastewater was used, the membrane technique showed some deficiencies. Because the U.S. EPA technique may be used for samples with both high and low solids content, allows for the recovery of helminth ova with different specific gravities, and has the lowest total cost, it was selected as the best technique.     

MTBE in California Drinking Water: An Analysis of Patterns and Trends

Over the past decade, there has been much publicity surrounding the impact of Methyl tert -butyl ether (MTBE) on drinking water supplies in the United States. In California, the presence of MTBE in groundwater and drinking water has led to a ban on the future use of MTBE in gasoline. Other states, such as those in the northeast, are also seeking ways to reduce or eliminate the use of MTBE due to perceived threats to the environment and public health. Despite claims about the incidence of MTBE in drinking water, no comprehensive characterization has been conducted on the available drinking water monitoring data. This paper provides a detailed analysis of the MTBE drinking water data compiled by the California Department of Health Services (CDHS) from 1995 to 2000. We find that MTBE was detected in about 1.3% of all drinking water samples, 2.5% of drinking water sources, and 3.7% of drinking water systems in California over this 6-year period. Our analysis reveals that many drinking water sources are not sampled routinely for MTBE, and in those sources that appear to be affected by MTBE, the compound is not consistently detected. The majority of MTBE detections are also concentrated in several geographic areas, which contain about 9-21% of the total California population. Average detected MTBE concentrations have decreased significantly since 1995 and 1996, ranging from 5 to 15 ppb over the last 3 years depending on the outcome of interest. Of the samples in which MTBE was present above the analytical detection limit, the concentrations in approximately 73% of drinking water samples and 86% of drinking water sources and systems were below the State's primary health-based standard of 13 ppb. Our findings suggest that, although some drinking water supplies in California have been affected by MTBE, the majority of drinking water sources and systems either have not been affected at all or contain MTBE at concentrations below levels that are likely to be of health concern.     

MTBE in California Drinking Water: An Analysis of Patterns and Trends

Over the past decade, there has been much publicity surrounding the impact of Methyl tert -butyl ether (MTBE) on drinking water supplies in the United States. In California, the presence of MTBE in groundwater and drinking water has led to a ban on the future use of MTBE in gasoline. Other states, such as those in the northeast, are also seeking ways to reduce or eliminate the use of MTBE due to perceived threats to the environment and public health. Despite claims about the incidence of MTBE in drinking water, no comprehensive characterization has been conducted on the available drinking water monitoring data. This paper provides a detailed analysis of the MTBE drinking water data compiled by the California Department of Health Services (CDHS) from 1995 to 2000. We find that MTBE was detected in about 1.3% of all drinking water samples, 2.5% of drinking water sources, and 3.7% of drinking water systems in California over this 6-year period. Our analysis reveals that many drinking water sources are not sampled routinely for MTBE, and in those sources that appear to be affected by MTBE, the compound is not consistently detected. The majority of MTBE detections are also concentrated in several geographic areas, which contain about 9–21% of the total California population. Average detected MTBE concentrations have decreased significantly since 1995 and 1996, ranging from 5 to 15 ppb over the last 3 years depending on the outcome of interest. Of the samples in which MTBE was present above the analytical detection limit, the concentrations in approximately 73% of drinking water samples and 86% of drinking water sources and systems were below the State's primary health-based standard of 13 ppb. Our findings suggest that, although some drinking water supplies in California have been affected by MTBE, the majority of drinking water sources and systems either have not been affected at all or contain MTBE at concentrations below levels that are likely to be of health concern.     

不同管材水管与静态自来水水质间的相互影响

对比了铝塑复合管(PAP)、铜管、不锈钢管和镀锌铁管对静态自来水的总有机碳(TOC)、溶解氧(DO)、浊度、细菌总数和大肠菌群等水质指标的影响。实验结果表明,铜管对自来水水质指标影响最小,且具有良好的卫生性能。同时,通过场发射扫描电子显微镜(FESEM)的观察,对比分析了铜管和铝塑复合管在浸泡实验前后其内表面形态特征的变化,结果显示自来水中浸泡10个月以后,铜管内表面密集地分布着块状的孔雀石晶体,而铝塑复合管内表面已严重变形,产生很多褶皱。     

MTBE in California's Drinking Water: A Comparison of Groundwater Versus Surface Water Sources

During the last decade, the fuel oxygenate methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) has received widespread attention as a potential threat to water quality, primarily due to leaking underground gasoline storage tanks and watercraft with two-stroke engines. In this article, we examine the annual detection frequency, number of new source detections, and concentration of MTBE detected in California's public drinking water groundwater and surface water sources from 1995 to 2002. This work builds on our previous evaluations of California's water quality monitoring database. However, it is unique in that it includes separate evaluations for groundwater and surface water sources that are of greatest concern to regulators, and which are likely being used for current public consumption. Our evaluations also include full-year data for 2002 (which have not been published previously) and an analysis of how the sampling and reported detections of MTBE vary by geographic location. We find that MTBE was generally detected (at any level) in approximately 0.5-0.9% and 0.2-0.4% of all groundwater sources assuming a one-detection and two-detection criterion, respectively. The overall detection frequency for MTBE in surface water sources is significantly higher than for groundwater sources, although these surface water detections appear to have substantially declined since 1996 (e.g., 7-9% for all surface water sources during 1996 to 1999 and 4% for all surface water sources during 2000 to 2002, assuming a one-detection criterion). The detection frequency of MTBE concentrations at or above the state drinking water standards in all drinking water sources (both groundwater and surface water sources) and the subset of drinking water sources that are likely to currently be delivered to consumers is markedly lower (and often zero). Despite the significant increase in water sampling over time, the number of new drinking water sources found to contain MTBE in California has not increased at the same rate and appears to have remained relatively stable or to have decreased since 1998. The data also show that nearly all of the 58 counties in California have routinely sampled at least some of their groundwater and surface water sources for MTBE over the last 8 years. Geographical evaluations show that MTBE has been detected (at least once) in groundwater sources in 34 counties and in surface water sources in 18 counties but has only been detected routinely (i.e., for 3 or more years) in 16 and 7 counties, respectively. Detected concentrations of MTBE are also generally below state drinking water standards, particularly for surface water sources. In short: (1) MTBE is rarely found in California groundwater or surface water sources that are of greatest concern to regulators or the public, and (2) drinking water detections of MTBE are expected to decline in the future due to the pending phase-out of MTBE and recent regulatory programs aimed at controlling gasoline releases from underground storage tanks and two-stroke-engine watercraft.     

Assessment of uranium migration and pollution sources in river sediments of the Ili River Basin using multiply statistical techniques

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - Uranium (U) is a highly toxic radioactive element and limited to < 30 μg/L in drinking water by the World Health Organization. In this...     

Chemical and microbial characteristics of municipal drinking water supply systems in the Canadian Arctic

Drinking water in the vast Arctic Canadian territory of Nunavut is sourced from surface water lakes or rivers and transferred to man-made or natural reservoirs. The raw water is at a minimum treated by chlorination and distributed to customers either by trucks delivering to a water storage tank inside buildings or through a piped distribution system. The objective of this study was to characterize the chemical and microbial drinking water quality from source to tap in three hamlets (Coral Harbour, Pond Inlet and Pangnirtung—each has a population of <2000) on trucked service, and in Iqaluit (population ~6700), which uses a combination of trucked and piped water conveyance. Generally, the source and drinking water was of satisfactory microbial quality, containing Escherichia coli levels of <1 MPN/100 mL with a few exceptions, and selected pathogenic bacteria and parasites were below detection limits using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) methods. Tap water in households receiving trucked water contained less than the recommended 0.2 mg/L of free chlorine, while piped drinking water in Iqaluit complied with Health Canada guidelines for residual chlorine (i.e. >0.2 mg/L free chlorine). Some buildings in the four communities contained manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe) and/or lead (Pb) concentrations above Health Canada guideline values for the aesthetic (Mn, Cu and Fe) and health (Pb) objectives. Corrosion of components of the drinking water distribution system (household storage tanks, premise plumbing) could be contributing to Pb, Cu and Fe levels, as the source water in three of the four communities had low alkalinity. The results point to the need for robust disinfection, which may include secondary disinfection or point-of-use disinfection, to prevent microbial risks in drinking water tanks in buildings and ultimately at the tap.     

Status and trends of fecal indicator bacteria in two urban watersheds.

This paper examines bacterial levels and their causes in two Houston bayous (Texas). Buffalo and Whiteoak bayous are two of the most contaminated water bodies in Texas for indicator bacteria, based on the frequency and magnitude of contact recreation water quality exceedances. Examination of historical data indicates frequent exceedances, although some improvement has been made since the 1970s. Statistical analyses showed some correlation between in-stream fecal coliform concentrations and rainfall and with land use. Differences in fecal coliform concentrations were found between high- and low-flow conditions in Whiteoak Bayou, while reservoir releases confounded this relationship in Buffalo Bayou. Wastewater treatment plant effluent was found to make up two-thirds to three-fourths of the median flow in both bayous. Effluent sampling was conducted at 72 of the approximately 140 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the watersheds, providing evidence that WWTP effluent could act to maintain low-flow concentrations of fecal coliform in the bayous.     

Water quality and health in northern Canada: stored drinking water and acute gastrointestinal illness in Labrador Inuit

One of the highest self-reported incidence rates of acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI) in the global peer-reviewed literature occurs in Inuit communities in the Canadian Arctic. This high incidence of illness could be due, in part, to the consumption of contaminated water, as many northern communities face challenges related to the quality of municipal drinking water. Furthermore, many Inuit store drinking water in containers in the home, which could increase the risk of contamination between source and point-of-use (i.e., water recontamination during storage). To examine this risk, this research characterized drinking water collection and storage practices, identified potential risk factors for water contamination between source and point-of-use, and examined possible associations between drinking water contamination and self-reported AGI in the Inuit community of Rigolet, Canada. The study included a cross-sectional census survey that captured data on types of drinking water used, household practices related to drinking water (e.g., how it was collected and stored), physical characteristics of water storage containers, and self-reported AGI. Additionally, water samples were collected from all identified drinking water containers in homes and analyzed for presence of Escherichia coli and total coliforms. Despite municipally treated tap water being available in all homes, 77.6% of households had alternative sources of drinking water stored in containers, and of these containers, 25.2% tested positive for total coliforms. The use of transfer devices and water dippers (i.e., smaller bowls or measuring cups) for the collection and retrieval of water from containers were both significantly associated with increased odds of total coliform presence in stored water (OR_{transfer device} = 3.4, 95% CI 1.2–11.7; OR_dipper = 13.4, 95% CI 3.8–47.1). Twenty-eight-day period prevalence of self-reported AGI during the month before the survey was 17.2% (95% CI 13.0–22.5), which yielded an annual incidence rate of 2.4 cases per person per year (95% CI 1.8–3.1); no water-related risk factors were significantly associated with AGI. Considering the high prevalence of, and risk factors associated with, indicator bacteria in drinking water stored in containers, potential exposure to waterborne pathogens may be minimized through interventions at the household level.     

Application of Harvey-Garabedian model for describing bacterial removal in Sand Abstraction Systems associated with ephemeral rivers

There have been concerted efforts to find alternative sources of water for small rural communities in the Southern Africa region, and one such initiative is Sand Abstraction Systems (SAS) or infiltration galleries. The sand formation of the riverbed of an ephemeral river is utilised as a natural filter giving potable water of high quality, but is prone to pathogenic contamination. The main objective of our study was to test the suitability of Harvey and Garabedian model for describing bacterial removal in SAS. The Harvey and Garabedian model with some modifications was adopted due to the few parameters required in applying the model. The coefficients and media properties were established from laboratory experiments and field studies. The implicit finite difference method was applied to solve the numerical model equation and to simulate the aquifer response to Escherichia coli for Nkayi SAS. The results of the bacterial simulation from the model fitted well with measured field data and with a small margin of error between the field results and the model (+/-5 coliform count/100 ml).     

N-亚硝基二甲胺及其前体物在污水处理厂中去除的研究进展

N-亚硝基二甲胺(NDMA)是近年来发现的水或废水氯消毒的副产物,被美国环境保护署认定为可疑致癌化合物.介绍了NDMA的形成机制及其与NDMA前体物的来源.综述了NDMA及其前体物在污水处理厂中的去除现状和去除技术.在此基础上,展望了NDMA及其前体物的未来研究方向,提出了开展国内NDMA研究工作的必要性.     

The use of XAD-resins for the detection of mutagenic activity in water: II. Studies with drinking water

The combined XAD-4/8-Ames test procedure for concentrating and detecting trace amounts of organic mutagens, as already described for surface water, is shown to be suitable for drinking water as well. DMSO is as effective as acetone in eluting the adsorbed mutagens, and optimal recovery of overall mutagenic activity is observed at a flow rate of 2–4 bed volumes/min. The drinking water of 6 cities in The Netherlands, which prepare their drinking water from the rivers Rhine and Meuse, has been tested for mutagenic activity. Mutagenic activity could be demonstrated in 4 cities. Dose-related responses are observed with concentrates of as little as 500 ml of drinking water and the 4 cities clearly differ with regard to the type of mutations induced (TA 98 or TA 100) and the effect of metabolic activation. The absence of mutagenic activity in drinking water of 2 cities indicates that by a proper combination of treatment processes the organics which are responsible for the detected mutagenic activity in drinking water can be removed to a high degree.     

Impacts of swine manure pits on groundwater quality

Manure deep-pits are commonly used to store manure at confined animal feeding operations. However, previous to this study little information had been collected on the impacts of deep-pits on groundwater quality to provide science-based guidance in formulating regulations and waste management strategies that address risks to human health and the environment. Groundwater quality has been monitored since January 1999 at two hog finishing facilities in Illinois that use deep-pit systems for manure storage. Groundwater samples were collected on a monthly basis and analyzed for inorganic and bacteriological constituent concentrations. The two sites are located in areas with geologic environments representing different vulnerabilities for local groundwater contamination. One site is underlain by more than 6 m of clayey silt, and 7-36 m of shale. Concentrations of chloride, ammonium, phosphate, and potassium indicated that local groundwater quality had not been significantly impacted by pit leakage from this facility. Nitrate concentrations were elevated near the pit, often exceeding the 10 mg N/l drinking water standard. Isotopic nitrate signatures suggested that the nitrate was likely derived from soil organic matter and fertilizer applied to adjacent crop fields. At the other site, sandstone is located 4.6-6.1 m below land surface. Chloride concentrations and delta15N and delta15O values of dissolved nitrate indicated that this facility may have limited and localized impacts on groundwater. Other constituents, including ammonia, potassium, phosphate, and sodium were generally at or less than background concentrations. Trace- and heavy-metal concentrations in groundwater samples collected from both facilities were at concentrations less than drinking water standards. The concentration of inorganic constituents in the groundwater would not likely impact human health. Fecal streptococcus bacteria were detected at least once in groundwater from all monitoring wells at both sites. Fecal streptococcus was more common and at greater concentrations than fecal coliform. The microbiological data suggest that filtration of bacteria by soils may not be as effective as commonly assumed. The presence of fecal bacteria in the shallow groundwater may pose a significant threat to human health if the ground water is used for drinking. Both facilities are less than 4 years old and the short-term impacts of these manure storage facilities on groundwater quality have been limited. Continued monitoring of these facilities will determine if they have a long-term impact on groundwater resources.     

Heavy-metal pollution and arseniasis in Hetao region, China

In the Hetao region in northern China drinking water has become toxic due to the presence of arsenic (As) and other heavy metals in soil and water. The 7 counties in this region cover approx. 6100 km2, and in all 180,000 people are suffering from the toxic effects of contaminated drinking water. However, very few studies have been carried out in the region on the possible source of this arsenic. This paper is based on studies of the distribution of heavy metals in soil and groundwater. Results show that the average content of As is 0.483 microg g(-1) in groundwater and 13.74 microg g(-1) in soil. These levels are higher than the drinking water standard of 0.05 microg g(-1) recommended by the World Health Organization in 1984, and for the local background level in soil (5.20 microg g(-1)). This heavy-metal content in water and soil decreases gradually with increasing distance from the contaminated area, which fronts the Yin Mountains. The ratios of the Pb and Sr isotope contents in water are closely related to the ratios found in the water of the regions' mining area, and the ratios in soil correspond to the content of As in groundwater and soil in the area where pathological changes have been detected. Results suggest that the contaminants originate in the ore deposit zone fronting Yin mountains in the upper reaches of the Hetao Region.     

Recurrence of fecal coliforms and Salmonella species in biosolids following thermophilic anaerobic digestion.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) Part 503 Biosolids Rule requires the fecal coliform (indicator) or Salmonella species (pathogen) density requirements for Class A biosolids to be met at the last point of plant control (truck-loading facility and/or farm for land application). The three Southern Californian wastewater treatment plants in this study produced biosolids by thermophilic anaerobic digestion and all met the Class A limits for both fecal coliforms and Salmonella sp. in the digester outflow biosolids. At two plants, however, a recurrence of fecal coliforms was observed in postdigestion biosolids, which caused exceedance of the Class A limit for fecal coliforms at the truck-loading facility and farm for land application. Comparison of observations at the three plants and further laboratory tests indicated that the recurrence of fecal coliforms can possibly be related to the following combination of factors: (1) incomplete destruction of fecal coliforms during thermophilic anaerobic digestion, (2) contamination of Class A biosolids with fecal coliforms from external sources during postdigestion, (3) a large drop of the postdigestion biosolids temperature to below the maximum for fecal coliform growth, (4) an unknown effect of biosolids dewatering in centrifuges. At Hyperion Treatment Plant (City of Los Angeles, California), fecal coliform recurrence could be prevented by the following: (1) complete conversion to thermophilic operation to exclude contamination by mesophilically digested biosolids and (2) insulation and electrical heat-tracing of postdigestion train for maintaining a high biosolids temperature in postdigestion.     

The exploration of potassium ferrate(VI) as a disinfectant/coagulant in water and wastewater treatment

This paper aims to explore potassium ferrate(VI) (K2FeO4) as an alternative water treatment chemical for both drinking water and wastewater treatment. The performance of potassium ferrate(VI) was evaluated in comparison with that of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and that of NaOCl plus ferric sulphate (FS) or alum (AS). The dosages of ferrate(VI), NaOCl and FS/AS and sample pH values were varied in order to investigate the effects of these factors on the treatment performance. The study demonstrates that in drinking water treatment, ferrate(VI) can remove 10-20% more UV(254)-abs and DOC than FS for the same dose compared for natural pH range (6 and 8). The THMFP was reduced to less than 100 microg l(-1) by ferrate(VI) at a low dose. In addition to this, ferrate(VI) can achieve the disinfection targets (>6 log10 inactivation of Escherichia coliform (E. coli)) at a very low dose (6 mg l(-1) as Fe) and over wide working pH in comparison with chlorination (10 mg l(-1) as Cl2) plus coagulation (FS, 4 mg l(-1) as Fe). In wastewater treatment, ferrate(VI) can reduce 30% more COD, and kill 3log10 more bacteria compared to AS and FS at a similar or even smaller dose. Also, potassium ferrate(VI) can produce less sludge volume and remove more pollutants, which could make sludge treatment easier.     

Well water contaminated by acidic mine water from the Dabaoshan Mine, south China: chemistry and toxicity

An investigation into well water quality was carried out in a rural area subject to irrigation with acidic mine water from the Guangdong Dabaoshan Mine, southern China. The results of water pH measurements from 112 wells in two different seasons suggest that the well water has been contaminated to varying degrees in the investigated Shangba floodplain (approximately 11km south of the Guangdong Dabaoshan Mine). There is a trend that well water pH increased southwards, suggesting that the impacts of acidic irrigation water on groundwater decreased with increasing distance to the entry point of acidic irrigation water. Water quality monitoring results of the selected wells show that Cu and Cd in the water exceeded the limits set in the Chinese National Standards for Drinking Water (GB 5749-85) for the wells close to the irrigation water source. If the World Health Organization (WHO) standard was considered, Cd in some wells was almost 10 times as high as the WHO guideline value (0.003mg l(-1)). Water collected from the location closest to the acidic irrigation water source was acutely toxic to the test organism (Daphnia carinata) even after 51 time dilution. It is likely that the extremely high mortality rate of the local population reported for the study area is at least partly related to the high levels of heavy metals, particularly Cd in the drinking well water.     

Effects of sample holding time on concentrations of microorganisms in water samples.

This research investigated the effects of extending the holding time of samples for microbial analysis beyond the standard of 24 hours for purposes such as watershed characterization. Experiments were conducted with both sanitary wastewater and stormwater samples. The refrigerated samples (4 degrees C) were held for up to 9 days before being analyzed for two pathogens (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus) and five indicator organisms (total coliform, fecal coliform, fecal streptococcus, enterococcus, and Escherichia coli) by membrane filtration. The concentrations (as colony-forming units per 100 mL) were normalized by log10(transformation and used in subsequent statistical analysis testing for significant differences. The results suggested that the concentrations of microorganisms in water samples analyzed on days 1 and 2 did not vary significantly in 8 of 13 analyses. The results of a field study concluded that the concentration of fecal coliform did not change significantly between 7 hours holding time and greater than 24 hours holding time for fecal coliform.     

An overview of the methods used in the characterisation of natural organic matter (NOM) in relation to drinking water treatment

Natural organic matter (NOM) is found in all surface, ground and soil waters. During recent decades, reports worldwide show a continuing increase in the color and NOM of the surface water, which has an adverse affect on drinking water purification. For several practical and hygienic reasons, the presence of NOM is undesirable in drinking water. Various technologies have been proposed for NOM removal with varying degrees of success. The properties and amount of NOM, however, can significantly affect the process efficiency. In order to improve and optimise these processes, the characterisation and quantification of NOM at different purification and treatment processes stages is important. It is also important to be able to understand and predict the reactivity of NOM or its fractions in different steps of the treatment. Methods used in the characterisation of NOM include resin adsorption, size exclusion chromatography (SEC), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and fluorescence spectroscopy. The amount of NOM in water has been predicted with parameters including UV-Vis, total organic carbon (TOC), and specific UV-absorbance (SUVA). Recently, methods by which NOM structures can be more precisely determined have been developed; pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS), multidimensional NMR techniques, and Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FTICR-MS). The present review focuses on the methods used for characterisation and quantification of NOM in relation to drinking water treatment.     

Is the microbiological quality of the Msunduzi River (KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) suitable for domestic, recreational, and agricultural purposes?

As little is known about the potential risks associated with the use of microbiologically contaminated river water for recreation, irrigation, or domestic purposes, the Msunduzi River in Pietermaritzburg (KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) was evaluated. In addition to pH, temperature, and chemical oxygen demand, quantitative and qualitative microbiological analyses were performed monthly for 13 months. These included aerobic plate counts, counts of aerobic and anaerobic sporeformers, most probable numbers for total and faecal coliforms and Escherichia coli and the detection of Salmonella spp., Staphylococcus aureus, and intestinal enterococci. Presumptive E. coli and S. aureus from river water samples were confirmed using PCR and additionally matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) for E. coli. Aerobic plate counts were above the South African Department of Water Affairs recommended guideline level for domestic use of 100 cfu/ml for all 13 months assessed. Faecal coliform (up to 63,000 MPN/100 ml) and E. coli (up to 7,900 MPN/100 ml) levels regularly exceeded stipulated limits for safe irrigation, domestic and recreational use. The presence of Salmonella spp., S. aureus, and intestinal enterococci frequently coincided with faecal coliform and E. coli levels above 1,000 MPN/100 ml. This illustrates the value of using guideline values for faecal coliforms and E. coli as indicators for the presence of potential pathogens. PCR and MALDI-TOF MS confirmation of E. coli were in agreement, thereby demonstrating the potential of MALDI-TOF MS as a suitable alternative. These data demonstrate that potential health risks are associated with using Msunduzi River water for irrigation and recreational or domestic purposes.