Discrepancies in Reported Levels of International Wildlife Trade

Abstract:  The international wildlife trade is a principal cause of biodiversity loss, involving hundreds of millions of plants and animals each year, yet wildlife trade records are notoriously unreliable. We assessed the precision of wildlife trade reports for the United States, the world's largest consumer of endangered wildlife, by comparing data from the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) with U.S. Customs data. For both U.S. imports and exports, CITES and Customs reported substantially different trade volumes for all taxa in all years. Discrepancies ranged from a CITES-reported volume 376% greater than that reported by Customs (live coral imports, 2000) to a Customs' report 5202% greater than CITES (conch exports, 2000). These widely divergent data suggest widespread inaccuracies that may distort the perceived risk of targeted wildlife exploitation, leading to misallocation of management resources and less effective conservation strategies. Conservation scientists and practitioners should reexamine assumptions regarding the significance of the international wildlife trade.     

Impacts of inter-sectoral trade on carbon emissions—a case of China in 2007

With the increase in international trade, more attention has been given to quantifying the impacts of international trade on energy use and carbon emissions. Input-output analysis is a suitable tool for assessing resources or pollutants embodied in trade and it has become a critical tool for performing such analysis. This study estimated the national and sectoral carbon emissions embodied in Chinese international trade using the latest available China input-output table of 2007. The results showed that a significant exporting behavior of embodied carbon emissions existed in China??s trade. Over 1/3 of the emissions in Chinese domestic production processes were generated for exports in 2007. The net balance of emissions embodied in exports and imports accounted for nearly 30% of China??s domestic emissions, which means that any policy made to increase the exports would result in a significant growth of China??s domestic emissions. Since over half of China??s export trade is processing trade, the re-exported emissions could not be overlooked; otherwise, it would hard to capture the actual emissions generated abroad to obtain China??s domestic consumption. The enlargement of export scale is a primary driven factor to the rapid growth of China??s exported emissions. It is necessary for China to adjust its economic and industrial structure to reduce the dependence of economic growth on the export trade. However, when adjusting industry structures or making policies on carbon emission reduction, it will be more reasonable to consider the relationship between production and consumption, rather than just focus on the emission values of sectors?? direct production, as a large part of carbon emissions emitted by the principal direct polluters were generated to obtain the products which were required by other sectors.     

Domestic dynamics of crop production in response to international food trade: evidence from soybean imports in China

ABSTRACT

International food trade plays an important role in food security, but little research has been devoted to studying crop dynamics in importing countries caused by trade. We studied the spatiotemporal patterns of soybean planting area in China (the largest soybean importing country) in response to soybean imports. The results show how the soybean planting area from 1980 to 2012 in China is dominated by two temporal patterns, both of which first increased, then decreased, with an 8-year time lag. The first increasing-decreasing pattern is affected by increasing soybean imports, and the second increasing-decreasing pattern is driven by decreasing domestic soybean profits. The results also show spatially distinct spatial patterns: soybean planting area decreased in southeastern China while it increased in northwestern China. Our analysis of soybean planting area helps China and other food-importing countries understand spatiotemporal responses of domestic agricultural cultivations caused by international food trade and agricultural pollution management.     

Unintended biological invasions: Does risk vary by trading partner?

International trade is the primary conduit for unintentional and damaging species introductions. But biogeographic heterogeneity, and differences in historical trade exposure across trade partners suggest that not all imports are equally risky. We develop an analytical model linking exotic species introductions and discoveries to trade volumes. The model is estimated using a novel historical data set on global trade and species introductions by region. Our estimates support theoretical predictions that trade from different regions poses different risks and that the cumulative number of introductions from a region is a concave function of imports. For each trade region we then calculate the marginal and cumulative invasion risk from additional trade. Simple volume restrictions on imports to reduce NIS introductions are not advisable based on coarse cost–benefit calculations.     

An interregional ecological approach for modelling sustainability in a globalizing world—Reviewing existing approaches and emerging directions

In recent decades international trade has become a major source of supplying the need and wants of billions of people around the world. Virtually everyone now consumes resource commodities and manufactured products imported from ‘elsewhere’. In effect, globalization and trade enable consuming populations to support themselves on the output of distant ecosystems half a world away. However, while economic integration implies greater ‘connectivity’ within the global village, the spatial separation of material production (including resource extraction) from consumption eliminates some of the signals i.e., the negative feedbacks coming from supporting eco-systems from reaching those who depend on these ecosystems for their sustainability. At present, despite increasing global connectedness, most environmental studies and models apply to a single spatial scale: local, national or global; analysing diverse pressures on human well-being and ecosystems integrity. This paper argues that both economic globalization and global ecological change should force us to add an interregional scale for quantifying and modelling sustainability. Such an approach recognizes that, in a globalizing world, the sustainability of any given region increasingly depends, directly and indirectly, on the sustainability of many other regions. The following pages describe the interregional approach and illustrate some existing and emerging methods for quantifying, analysing and modelling interregional linkages. It then identifies some of what is still missing, and discusses some of the implications in a changing world.     

基于线性溶解能关系预测污染物在被动采样材料与环境介质之间的分配系数

半透膜采样装置(SPMD)作为一种重要的被动采样器,被用于监测有机污染物的环境水平.SPMD的采样材料是置于低密度聚乙烯"口袋"中的三油酸甘油酯.根据有机污染物在被动采样材料与环境介质之间的平衡分配系数(包括被动采样材料/空气分配系数K(sA).和被动采样材料/水分配系数K(sw))值,可估算SPMD的采样速率,也可计...     

Achieving environmental goals in a world of trade and hidden action: the role of trade policies and eco-labeling

Importing countries often resort to trade policies and consumer actions in order to reduce negative environmental impacts of the products they consume. Traditionally, these policies were non-discriminatory, i.e., they treated all imports equally, without considering the actual damages caused by the product. More recently, there is a trend towards process-discriminatory policies which attempt to discriminate against environmentally unsound imports while encouraging sound alternatives. We develop a theoretical model of the consuming country's optimal trade policy, allowing for asymmetric information and costly monitoring, and analyze what type of policy is preferable under what conditions.     

Level of environmental threat posed by horticultural trade in Cactaceae

Ornamental horticulture has been identified as an important threat to plant biodiversity and is a major pathway for plant invasions worldwide. In this context, the family Cactaceae is particularly challenging because it is considered the fifth most threatened large taxonomic group in the world; several species are among the most widespread and damaging invasive species; and Cactaceae is one of the most popular horticultural plant groups. Based on the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna and the 11 largest online auction sites selling cacti, we documented the international cactus trade. To provide an in‐depth look at the dynamics of the industry, we surveyed the businesses involved in the cactus trade in South Africa (a hotspot of cactus trade and invasions). We purchased seeds of every available species and used DNA barcoding to identify species to the genus level. Although <20% of this trade involved threatened species and <3% involved known invasive species, many species were identified by a common name. However, only 0.02% of the globally traded cacti were collected from wild populations. Despite a large commercial network, all South African imports (of which 15% and 1.5% were of species listed as threatened and invasive, respectively) came from the same source. With DNA barcoding, we identified 24% of the species to genus level. Based on our results, we believe that if trade restrictions are placed on the small proportion of cacti that are invasive and there is no major increase in harvesting of native populations, then the commercial trade in cactus poses a negligible environmental threat. However, there are currently no effective methods for easily identifying which cacti are traded, and both the illicit harvesting of cacti from the wild and the informal trade in invasive taxa pose on‐going conservation challenges.     

Dealing with the Clandestine Nature of Wildlife‐Trade Market Surveys

Abstract: Illegal international trade in wildlife (excluding fisheries and timber) has been valued at more than US$20 billion. A more precise figure has not been determined in part because of the clandestine nature of the trade, and for this same reason even regional and local levels of wildlife trade are difficult to assess. The application of recent developments in wildlife field‐survey methods (e.g., occupancy) now allows for a more‐accurate estimation of wildlife trade occurrence, including its hidden components at a variety of scales (e.g., regional, local) and periods (e.g., single season, 1 year, multiple years). Occupancy models have been applied in wildlife field studies to address the problem of false absences when conducting presence–absence surveys. Occupancy surveys differ from traditional presence–absence surveys because they incorporate repeat surveys, allowing for the likelihood of detecting a species (the probability of detection) to be estimated explicitly (in contrast to traditional surveys that often incorrectly treat this probability as close to one to allow for estimation of presence). Occupancy methods can be applied to a variety of wildlife‐trade surveys, including, for example, single‐species availability, links between two illegally traded species (i.e., co‐occurrence), and disease occurrence in live trade. In addition, free user‐friendly software (i.e., PRESENCE) allows even nonstatisticians to adequately address this issue. I simulated a hypothetical wildlife‐trade market survey that resulted in an apparent 20% decline in naïve occupancy (proportion of surveyed towns engaged in the trade) over 2 years, but when I accounted for change in probability of detection over the years the difference in occupancy was not statistically significant. As more sophisticated methods, such as occupancy, are applied to wildlife‐trade market surveys, results will be more robust and defensible and therefore, theoretically, more powerful when presented to conservation policy and decision makers.     

长沙对外贸易发展的现状及其对经济发展的影响

利用1998年到2006年长沙对外贸易的数据分析了长沙对外贸易发展的现状,结果表明长沙近几年对外贸易总体上呈不断增长趋势、贸易结构不断优化;同时对外贸易推动了长沙经济增长、技术进步、结构调整和竞争力的提升,但长沙对外贸易的规模偏小、增长速度偏低、对长沙经济增长的拉动作用小.长沙作为中部省会城市,其外贸发展情况必然带有整个中西部地区外贸的一些共性,对其他中部地区外贸研究具有一定参考价值.表2,参5.     

Secondary materials and international trade

The paper develops the international trade dimensions of recycling. It begins by outlining the sources of demand and supply that determine the volume, composition and direction of trade in waste materials. The model is intended to describe factors affecting international flows of any type of secondary material, although its usefulness in an empirical context is restricted in many cases by data limitations and complex lag structures on the supply side. Parts of the model are then applied to the case of waste paper, focusing on observed differences in national recycling rates and the role of trade in reconciling those differences.     

Assessing the Risk of Introducing Exotic Species via the Live Marine Species Trade

Abstract:  Although the shipping industry has received considerable attention as a dispersal mechanism for aquatic nuisance species, many invasions have been linked to other mechanisms of transfer. The threat posed to coastal ecosystems by these alternative mechanisms, however, remains largely unquantified. We assessed the potential risks of introducing marine and estuarine species associated with seven mechanisms of transfer: seafood companies, aquaculture operations, bait shops, stores that sell marine ornamental species, research and educational organizations, public aquariums, and coastal restoration projects. For each, we compiled a comprehensive database of organizations in coastal Massachusetts. We then designed and administered a survey to a subset of organizations that inquired about (1) their proximity to saltwater and methods of handling live imports; (2) the type and quantity of marine species being imported; and (3) the organization's familiarity with marine invasions. Respondents in five of the seven categories acknowledged importing nonlocal live marine species to the area. Seafood companies handled the majority of individuals but relatively few taxa. This mechanism of transfer also had the most complex trade patterns and the greatest number of operations located near saltwater. In contrast, the other transfer mechanisms each had simpler trade pathways and fewer operations but varied in the quantity and taxonomic diversity of their imports. Significantly, no single mechanism of transfer stood out as presenting a primary risk. Rather, each had characteristics or used handling practices at different points in the importation process that could facilitate introductions. To prevent future marine invasions, better reporting requirements for live species imports are needed, and best-management practices and outreach strategies specific to the transfer mechanism should be developed and implemented.     

Use of Population Viability Analysis to Evaluate CITES Trade‐Management Options for Threatened Marine Fishes

Abstract: Achieving multiple conservation objectives can be challenging, particularly under high uncertainty. Having agreed to limit seahorse (Hippocampus) exports to sustainable levels, signatories to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) were offered the option of a single 10‐cm minimum size limit (MSL) as an interim management measure for all Hippocampus species (≥34). Although diverse stakeholders supported the recommended MSL, its biological and socioeconomic implications were not assessed quantitatively. We combined population viability analysis, model sensitivity analysis, and economic information to evaluate the trade‐off between conservation threat to and long‐term cumulative income from these exploited marine fishes of high conservation concern. We used the European long‐snouted seahorse (Hippocampus guttulatus) as a representative species to compare the performance of MSLs set at alternative biological reference points. Our sensitivity analyses showed that in most of our scenarios, setting the MSL just above size at maturity (9.7 cm in H. guttulatus) would not prevent exploited populations from becoming listed as vulnerable. By contrast, the relative risk of decline and extinction were almost halved—at a cost of only a 5.6% reduction in long‐term catches—by increasing the MSL to the size reached after at least one full reproductive season. On the basis of our analysis, a precautionary increase in the MSL could be compatible with sustaining fishers' livelihoods and international trade. Such management tactics that aid species conservation and have minimal effects on long term catch trends may help bolster the case for CITES trade management of other valuable marine fishes.     

Low carbon transition options for Australia

A rapid and sustained transition to new energy systems for Australia was explored using the OzECCO model implemented in a systems dynamics simulation package. OzECCO simulates the close relationship between energy use and economic productivity at a sectoral level to explore scenarios of economic and biophysical function based on a calibration period of 1981-2005 and a scenario period 2006-2051. The core scenarios showed that a fully renewable (the renewables transition) or an advanced fossil and nuclear transition (the conventional wisdom transition), can reduce accumulated CO2 emissions from the Australian economy for the period 2006-2051 by 50%. Adding a low growth economy where GDP averages less than 1% annually extends this to a 60% reduction. Extensive reforestation of more than 50 million hectares extends the total reduction to 70% over the 45 year period and provides at 2051 a per capita emissions level of one to two tonnes which will be necessary if developed and developing countries are to converge on equal atmospheric impacts with reasonable lifestyle opportunities. Central to both the renewables and conventional-wisdom scenarios are substantial reductions in the physical dimensions of personal consumption, and the transfer of these avoided consumption opportunities to an intergenerational sovereign wealth fund. This fund, held outside day-to-day domestic activities, can buffer Australian society and future generations against shocks, financial or physical, that might lie waiting and unanticipated in our future. This study did not explore phasing out Australia's extensive coal and natural gas exports although their impact on global atmospheric concentrations is significant. Domestic combustion and exported fuels will add 82 billion tonnes of CO2 to the atmosphere in the scenario period 2006-2051, equivalent to a 20 ppm rise in atmospheric concentrations. The low-growth renewables transition with unconstrained exports reduces this rise to 15 ppm. The continued expansion of fuel exports thus expands atmospheric risk in physical terms but also entrains policy and strategic risks should carbon-based industries become pariahs in international commerce and political relations.     

管网生物膜菌株胞外聚合物的提取方法比较

以饮用水管网生物膜样品中一株强成膜能力的菌株Pleomorphomonas oryzae作为研究对象,考察了8种方法(高速离心法、超声法、加热法、EDTA法、H2SO4法、NaOH法、SDS法、甲醛法)对菌株胞外聚合物(EPS)的提取效果,并结合三维荧光光谱(EEM)和傅立叶红外光谱(FTIR)对提取的EPS进行成分分析.结果表明,EDTA法和H2SO4法既能提高EPS的提取效率,提取量分别为64.77 mg.g-1SS和74.43 mg.g-1SS,是离心方法提取量的1.62倍和1.86倍,又不会在提取过程中对菌株细胞造成破坏,是较为理想的EPS提取方法.EEM分析进一步证实,NaOH法对菌株细胞破坏严重,造成EPS成分变化较大.FTIR分析则说明,化学提取方法相较于物理提取方法会引入杂质对组分测定造成干扰.     

The perils of flawed science in wildlife trade literature

Despite broad scientific consensus that sustainable use of wildlife can enhance conservation efforts, ethical concerns have led some community groups to oppose use of wild animals. Voicing those concerns is legitimate, but underlying philosophical bias should not influence science-based analysis and interpretation. We argue that philosophical biases are common in the scientific literature on trade in wildlife. The critically important case of bias surrounding the use of reptile leathers for luxury fashion illustrates the problem. Based on analysis of official seizures of fashion products made from wildlife, a recent study inferred that criminal activity (as inferred by noncompliance with regulations) was common and increasing and, hence, that authorities needed to adopt more stringent restrictions on the trade. In fact, the conclusions of that study are artifacts of pseudoreplication (e.g., multiple counts of single violations) and biased sampling (e.g., focus on companies with high rates of error) and run directly opposite to actual patterns in the data. As a proportion of overall trade, rates of noncompliance are exceptionally low (<0.4%), are declining, and result primarily from paper-work errors rather than criminal intent (e.g., such errors are more frequent for goods shipped by government authorities than by the commercial fashion industry). The recommendation by the study authors to prohibit the international trade in wildlife-based fashion products is imperiling a sustainable trade that can benefit biodiversity and people's livelihoods by providing financial incentives for conservation of species and habitats. This example offers a warning of the dangers of basing research on the wildlife trade on ethical or philosophical positions rather than objective evaluations of evidence.     

Excitation-emission matrix (EEM) fluorescence spectroscopy for characterization of organic matter in membrane bioreactors: Principles,methods and applications

• Principles and methods for fluorescence EEM are systematically outlined. • Fluorophore peak/region/component and energy information can be extracted from EEM. • EEM can fingerprint the physical/chemical/biological properties of DOM in MBRs. • EEM is useful for tracking pollutant transformation and membrane retention/fouling. • Improvements are still needed to overcome limitations for further studies. The membrane bioreactor (MBR) technology is a rising star for wastewater treatment. The pollutant elimination and membrane fouling performances of MBRs are essentially related to the dissolved organic matter (DOM) in the system. Three-dimensional excitation-emission matrix (3D-EEM) fluorescence spectroscopy, a powerful tool for the rapid and sensitive characterization of DOM, has been extensively applied in MBR studies; however, only a limited portion of the EEM fingerprinting information was utilized. This paper revisits the principles and methods of fluorescence EEM, and reviews the recent progress in applying EEM to characterize DOM in MBR studies. We systematically introduced the information extracted from EEM by considering the fluorescence peak location/intensity, wavelength regional distribution, and spectral deconvolution (giving fluorescent component loadings/scores), and discussed how to use the information to interpret the chemical compositions, physiochemical properties, biological activities, membrane retention/fouling behaviors, and migration/transformation fates of DOM in MBR systems. In addition to conventional EEM indicators, novel fluorescent parameters are summarized for potential use, including quantum yield, Stokes shift, excited energy state, and fluorescence lifetime. The current limitations of EEM-based DOM characterization are also discussed, with possible measures proposed to improve applications in MBR monitoring.     

邻苯二甲酸二异辛酯致赤子爱胜蚓体细胞氧化损伤的研究

以赤子爱胜蚓为实验材料,探讨了邻苯二甲酸二异辛酯(DEHP)对赤子爱胜蚓(Esisenia foelide)的毒性.DEHP染毒剂量:0、0.2、0.4、0.8、1.6mmol·L-1,染毒2h后采用KCl-SDS沉淀法检测细胞匀浆DNA-蛋白质交联(DPC)系数,硫代巴比妥酸法检测丙二醛(MDA)含量.结果表明:随着DEHP染毒浓度的增加,赤子爱胜蚓细胞匀浆的DPC系数显著升高(F=14.1,p<0.01),并具有剂量-效应关系(r=0.8877,p<0.05),而MDA含量变化不显著,各染毒组与对照组之间不存在显著性差异(F=0.27,p>0.05).以上结果表明,实验浓度的DEHP暴露可使赤子爱胜蚓体细胞发生显著的DNA蛋白质交联,具有遗传毒性.     

Comparison of masking agents for antimony speciation analysis using hydride generation atomic fluorescence spectrometry

A sensitive atomic spectrometric method for the redox speciation analysis of Sb in water is described. The proposed method is based on the selective generation of stibine from Sb(III) in a continuous flow system using non-dispersive atomic fluorescence spectrometry for detection. The effects of the HCl concentration on the fluorescence intensities of Sb(III) and Sb(V) were investigated. The results indicated that atomic fluorescence emission due to Sb(V) can constructively interfere with the determination of Sb(III). For the determination of Sb(III), four compounds were tested as masking agents to inhibit the generation of stibine from Sb(V). The effects of the concentrations of the masking agents and of HCl on the fluorescence signals from Sb(III) and Sb(V) were studied. The results indicated that citric acid and NaF can successfully suppress hydride generation from Sb(V). To evaluate the developed methodology and the influence of the matrix, the recovery of Sb(III) from natural water that was spiked with different Sb(III) and Sb(V) concentrations was tested.     

Economic growth,international trade,and the depletion or conservation of renewable natural resources

Conservation of renewable natural resources and promotion of economic growth are both sustainable development goals. Here, we study the interdependency between economic growth, international trade, and the use of renewable natural resources—under alternative institutional settings of either open access or full property rights—in an endogenous growth model. We find that if the resource is depleted over time, consumption growth is reduced. Economic growth and international trade only impact resource use when the resource is harvested under full property rights. Then, widening international trade can lead countries to shift from conservation to depletion. Changes in the institutional setting of resource use in one country may have repercussions on trading partners. Our results indicate potential trade-offs between the sustainable development goals and imply that policies focusing on resource use or trade (e.g., international trade bans or certified trade) are not sufficient to prevent resource depletion.