SURFACE WATER-ESKER RECHARGE STUDY EAST LANSING-MERIDIAN TOWNSHIP,MICHIGAN1

ABSTRACT: The East Lansing-Meridian Water and Sewer Authority studied a sand-gravel esker near the existing water treatment plant to determine its potential as an independent surface water supply. The nearby Red Cedar River was also investigated as a possible source of water for immediate treatment or for recharge of the esker. Although the bedrock aquifer (Grand River and Saginaw Formations) yields water adequate for the next 20 years, potential savings in treatment (hardness, iron) and pumping costs, estimated at $30,000 per year for present demand of 5 MGD, are attractive incentives for a surface water-esker recharge program. Operation savings would also be realized by constructing additional bedrock wells in new areas. The river-esker-recharge and new wellfield alternatives are compared for cost-effectiveness. Land costs make the recharge alternative more expensive. The land is undeveloped suburban property with potential for recreational use in conjunction with water supply. More places of outdoor retreat and aesthetics are needed in the Lansig Metropolitan area. A portion of the land costs would have to be borne by these or other interests for the river recharge scheme to be economically feasible.     

CREATING MEANINGFUL STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT IN WATERSHED PLANNING IN PIERCE COUNTY,WASHINGTON1

ABSTRACT: Since 1989, the government of Pierce County, Washington, has prepared four watershed action plans. The watersheds cover almost 800,000 acres and include about 600,000 residents and diverse land uses, from the city of Tacoma to Mount Rainier National Park. The primary purpose of these plans was to address water quality impacts from nonpoint sources of pollution and to protect beneficial uses of water. Pierce County has experienced problems such as shellfish bed closures and the Federal Clean Water Act Section 303(d) listing of local water bodies as a result of declining water quality. Pierce County achieved improvements by engaging diverse groups of stakeholders in generating solutions to nonpoint sources of water pollution through our watershed planning process. Using participatory methods borrowed from private industry, Pierce County was able to reach consensus, build trust, maximize participation, facilitate learning, encourage creativity, develop partnerships, shorten time frames for the planning processes, and increase the level of commitment participants had to implementing the plans. As a result, the earliest plans have a high rate of voluntary implementation. This indicates that the process and methodology used to develop watershed plans has a significant, if not critical, impact on their success.     

DEEP WELL DISPOSAL OF SECONDARY EFFLUENT IN DADE COUNTY,FLORIDA1

ABSTRACT: Data were obtained from drilling and testing of a test injection well for deep underground injection of waste water effluent from the proposed 50-million-gallon-per-day (mgd) South District Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant of the Miami-Dade Water and Sewer Authority, Dade County, Florida. The drilling operation progressed in stages, each stage coverting the strata to be sealed off by the 48-inch, 40-inch, 30-inch, and 20-inch casings, respectively. Total depth of the well is 3,200 feet. The top of the saline, cavernous, dolomitic Boulder Zone was found at 2,790 feet below the surface and is separated from the Floridan aquifer above by approximately 1,100 feet of confining limestone layers. These confining layers were determined, by packer testing, to be very effective. The transmissivity of the Boulder Zone was estimated to be 14 × 10⁶ gallons per day per foot (gpd/ft) from the data obtained from pump out tests. An 8,000-gallon-per-minute (gpm) injection test was conducted to confirm well performance under operating conditions. Based on all of the data obtained, it was concluded that underground injection into the Boulder Zone of secondary waste water effluent from the proposed treatment plant is feasible, both hydraulically and environmentally. A monitoring system was proposed to provide a record of the effects of injection on the subsurface environment.     

Urban water demand and climate change

This paper presents a methodology for improved understanding of options for managing urban water demands under the uncertainties associated with climate change. It combines a sensitivity analysis of water supply with forecasts of water demand and examines how conservation efforts may offset deficits which result from climate change. It presents a case study of Nassau County, New York State, USA, that concludes that deficits projected for warmer climate scenarios can probably be alleviated by increased conservation. For scenarios of decreased precipitation, more extreme measures (eg rationing) may be necessary, illustrating the prudence of considering climate change in planning studies for communities which already experience water supply problems.     

WATER QUALITY SIMULATION AND PUBLIC LAW 92–500 Case Study: Southwestern Illinois1

ABSTRACT: Section 208 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 has provided the Southwestern Illinois Metropolitan and Regional Planning Commission (SIMAPC) with a unique opportunity for comprehensive planning of the region's water quality. SIMAPC initiated the 208 study by researching available technology for the analysis of point and nonpoint sources of pollution and establishing criteria by which to judge the various technniques. This led to SIMAPC'S choice of continuous simulation of stream and reservoir water quality as the most appropriate analytical tool for their needs. A continuous simulation model was calibrated and verified on three basins in the SIMPAC region. It was then used to produce load source analysis, pollution event frequency analysis, and pollution event duration analysis for ten pollutants under existing stream conditions and then under alternative future conditions. These results enabled the weighting of pollutant sources, analysis of the effectiveness of control measures, and quantitative analysis of the marginal benefit of each alternative.     

Allocation of supplementary aeration stations in the Chicago waterway system for dissolved oxygen improvement

The Chicago Waterway System (CWS), used mainly for commercial and recreational navigation and for urban drainage, is a 122.8 km branching network of navigable waterways controlled by hydraulic structures. The CWS receives pollutant loads from 3 of the largest wastewater treatment plants in the world, nearly 240 gravity Combined Sewer Overflows (CSO), 3 CSO pumping stations, direct diversions from Lake Michigan, and eleven tributary streams or drainage areas. Even though treatment plant effluent concentrations meet the applicable standards and most reaches of the CWS meet the applicable water quality standards, Dissolved Oxygen (DO) standards are not met in the CWS during some periods. A Use Attainability Analysis was initiated to evaluate what water quality standards can be achieved in the CWS. The UAA team identified several DO improvement alternatives including new supplementary aeration stations. Because of the dynamic nature of the CWS, the DUFLOW model that is capable of simulating hydraulics and water quality processes under unsteady-flow conditions was used to evaluate the effectiveness of new supplementary aeration stations. This paper details the use of the DUFLOW model to size and locate supplementary aeration stations. In order to determine the size and location of supplemental aeration stations, 90% compliance with a 5 mg/l DO standard was used as a planning target. The simulations showed that a total of four new supplementary aeration stations with oxygen supply capacities ranging from 30 to 80 g/s would be sufficient to meet the proposed target DO concentration for the North Branch and South Branch of the Chicago River. There are several aeration technologies, two of which are already being used in the CWS, available and the UAA team determined that the total capital costs of the alternatives range from $35.5 to $89.9 million with annual operations and maintenance costs ranging from $554,000 to $2.14 million. Supplemental aeration stations have been shown to be a potentially effective means to improve DO concentrations in the CWS and will be included in developing an integrated strategy for improving water quality in the CWS.     

“十四五”时期中国应对气候变化的区域行动：规划、问题与对策

“十四五”时期是我国应对气候变化的重要机遇期,生态环境部要求将应对气候变化目标任务全面融入生态环境保护规划,而国家和地方相关政策设计尚处于起步阶段。在理论方法方面,已有研究多关注国家层面应对气候变化整体进展及在不同领域的布局情况。各地区针对具体领域的规划目标、行动部署等各有侧重,但区域视角下研究仍比较缺乏。地方生态环境规划是地方生态环境部门履责的重要依据,本文构建了地方应对气候变化规划内容的分析框架,对28个省级行政区（未包含山西、贵州、西藏以及香港、澳门和台湾）“十四五”生态环境规划中应对气候变化政策进行分析,系统梳理各地区减缓和适应气候变化的重点举措,总结完善制度体系、开展试点示范等方面的主要做法;在分析各地区面临问题和挑战的基础上,提出了“十四五”时期加强应对气候变化工作的对策建议。本研究有助于弥补应对气候变化区域研究的不足,可为构建央地协调整合的应对气候变化政策体系、完善地方应对气候变化制度措施提供科学参考。     

Flooding and erosion hazards on the ontario great lakes shoreline: a human ecological approach to planning and management

Understanding flood and erosion hazards in the context of developing coastal management plans requires an appreciation for variations in climate, geology, vegetation, land uses, human activities and institutional arrangements. On the Great Lakes, fluctuating water levels are characterized by temporal variations in their magnitude and frequency and their impact on flooding and erosion also differ from site to site. The traditional planning and management mechanisms in Ontario, through the use of emergency responses and land use setbacks, have been insufficient in resolving the rising costs of damage to property due to flooding and erosion along the Great Lakes shoreline. There is a need to develop an alternative management model with a focus on understanding hazards in the context of their natural and human components. A case study of the preparation of a resource survey for the Saugeen Valley Conservation Authority illustrates the development of a human ecological approach and its applicability in developing shoreline management plans for the Great Lakes.     

A CASE STUDY IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ACT AMENDMENTS1

ABSTRACT: A general model of the policy implementation process is utilized to facilitate a discussion of the way Section 208 of PL 92-500 is being carried out on an areawide basis. A study of four “208 areas” in the “New York-Philadelphia corridor” highlights the operation of several variables used in the model. The varying political and socioeconomic conditions in geographic areas which have similar water quality problems are leading to the evolution of vastly different implementing structures, or institutional arrangements. The analysis suggests that these differences may have important implications for the success of the program in each of these areas. A major underlying theme is that such problems are characteristic of the 208 process nationwide and reflect general difficulties associated with managing water quality in a federal system.     

DEVELOPMENT OF DESIGN STORM HYETOGRAPHS FOR CINCINNATI,OHIO1

ABSTRACT A synthetic storm rainfall hyetograph for a one-year design frequency is derived from the one-year intensity-duration curve developed for Cincinnati, Ohio. Detailed rainfall data for a three-year period were collected from three raingages triangulating the Bloody Run Sewer Watershed, an urban drainage areas of 2380 acres'in Cincinnati, Ohio. The advancement of the synthetic storm pattern is obtained from an analysis of the antecedent precipitation immediately preceding the maximum period of three selected durations. Rains which produced excessive runoff at least for some duration were considered only. The same approach can be used for other design frequencies. The purpose of this study is to provide synthetic storm hyetographs to be used as input in deterministic mathematical models simulating urban storm water runoff for the design, analysis and possible surcharge prediction of sewer systems.     

Toward Improved Environmental and Social Management of Indian Shrimp Farming*

In the last decade, Indian shrimp aquaculture production tripled from 30,000 tons (1990) to 102,000 tons (1999). This fast development, combined with a lack of adequate planning and regulation, caused a number of environmental problems and social conflicts, including conversion of mangroves, water pollution, and salinization of drinking water wells. Because of the significant investments made in shrimp culture and the size of the environmental and social impacts, the formulation of a regulatory framework for shrimp aquaculture has been subject to an intensive debate between the aquaculture and the environmental lobbies. Following an order from the Supreme Court (1996), the Aquaculture Authority was established and a regulatory and institutional framework for the shrimp aquaculture sector has been set up. However, implementation of the system is still defective, and there is an urgent need for improvement. Farmers are increasingly able to prevent the devastating white spot disease in shrimps, and in the absence of proper planning and regulation, further expansion of shrimp production could result in significant additional environmental and social costs. The environmental and social management of Indian shrimp farming can be improved through a mix of policy measures, including strengthening of the license system, more effective enforcement of regulations, the use of economic incentives, and increased monitoring of environmental and social impacts.     

MANAGEMENT MODEL FOR CONTROLLING NITRATE CONTAMINATION IN THE NEW JERSEY PINE BARRENS AQUIFER1

ABSTRACT: Land use planning in rapidly developing areas can serve as an effective tool for minimizing water quality impacts on ground water supplies. A land use management model applied to Jackson Township of the New Jersey Pine Barrens was developed. The management model consisted of a simulation model for the transport of nitrates from septic tank systems through the aquifer and a multiobjective, goal programming optimization model to determine population density restrictions using 208 areawide planning population projections. Results showed that growth may have to be curtailed in several areas of Jackson Township and that current population projections over the next 30 years may result in unacceptably high nitrate concentrations downgradient of Jackson Township. The management framework provides a flexible approach to land use planning.     

COMPUTER-OPTIMIZED STORMWATER TREATMENT (COST) PROGRAM: PHILADELPHIA CASE STUDY1

ABSTRACT: Two computer models, the Continuous Stormwater Pollution Simulation System (CSPSS) and the Computer Optimized Storm-water Treatment Program (COST), were developed to aid in performing water quality planning. This paper describes COST and its site specific applications to the Philadelphia urban area, using the results from an updated CSPSS receiving water simulation. COST provides a planning and conceptual design tool to identify the economically optimum combination of wet weather and dry weather pollution abatement alternatives. Economic analysis procedures incorporated are based on production theory and marginal cost analysis. This study demonstrates that by transforming BOD removal to reduction in low DO events, using CSPSS results, the benefits associated with pollutant removal can be accounted for explicitly by COST simulations. This is important because a pound of BOD removed from combined sewer overflow may be of more benefit to the receiving water than a pound of BOD removed from urban stormwater runoff. The selection of a pollution control strategy is often a difficult decision which should consider social, political, financial, and regulatory factors. It is suggested that such a selection can be based on evaluating the tradeoffs between total annual costs and receiving water improvements, as determined using the COST and CSPSS programs.     

DESALTING SALINE WATER FOR IRRIGATION A CASE STUDY,COACHELLA AREA,CALIFORNIA1

ABSTRACT .A case study was performed to evaluate potential applications of desalted saline water for agriculture using 2 distillation type processes and 2 membrane type processes. The investigation determined the costs and benefits associated with desalting saline water at concentrations of 1,500, 900, 400, 200, and 50 ppm. Benefits from desalting are generated by shifts to more profitable crops, reduced costs for drainage, and reduction in fertilizer and labor requirements with better quality water. Costs are based on the project features such as desalting plants, raw water diversion facilities, storage reservoirs, conveyance and distribution systems, brine disposal, blending facilities, and gypsum addition systems. Hydrologic studies determined the crop irrigation requirements, water demand schedules, desalted water storage requirements, brine disposal requirements, and size of facilities required. Reconnaissance design layouts were made for producing desalted water using a combination of 14 schemes. The study also included a review of irrigation practices. The benefit-cost ratios range from 0.4 to 1.0 for 1,500 ppm irrigation water to 0.8 to 1.0 for 50 and 200 ppm water. Investment costs per acre are high, ranging from $12,900 to $20,900. Irrigation benefits are based on the increase in production from a desert condition with no water supply to the irrigation conditions studied.     

CAPITAL COSTS OF RURAL WATER SYSTEMS: AN EMPIRICAL APPROACH1

ABSTRACT: In the last two decades the federal government has provided substantial capital to construct rural water distribution systems. Loans at subsidized interest rates and front-end grants through the Farmers Home Administration have been the main source of this capital. Recent federal policy redirections have reduced substantially the availability of grants and subsidized loans. Because of design and material differences, capital cost estimates from urban systems are not uniformly applicable to rural water services. This study presents an econometric analysis of capital costs, using Illinois rural water system construction contract bids. Cost equations by systems components representing 90 percent of capital costs are estimated. The type of information developed here can be used in initial planning and optimization design models contributing to the efficient provision of rural water services.     

Evaluating environmental protection in post-Hurricane Katrina plans in Mississippi

Immediately following Hurricane Katrina, the Mississippi Governor's Commission for Recovery, Rebuilding and Renewal provided planning teams to work with coastal communities to prepare long-range rebuilding plans followed by further community-initiated plans. Eighteen months after Katrina, this paper examines the degree to which environmental protection has been incorporated into the long-range plans developed in Harrison County, Mississippi. This study finds that environmental protection has not been adequately integrated into the plans. It concludes by offering recommendations on how these communities can improve their plans relative to environmental protection measures as they move into their next phase of planning.     

Ecosystem services in infrastructure planning – a case study of the projected deepening of the Lower Weser river in Germany

We consider how ecosystem services can be incorporated into water infrastructure planning by studying the projected deepening of the Lower Weser river channel in Germany. We recalculate the project's benefit–cost ratio by integrating the monetary value of changes in different ecosystem services, as follows: (1) the restoration costs of a mitigation measure for a loss in fresh water supply for agricultural production in the estuary region, (2) the costs of a loss in habitat services, transferring the willingness to pay from a contingent valuation study to the area assessed in the environmental impact assessment, and (3) the benefits of emissions savings induced by more efficient shipping, taking a marginal abatement cost approach. We find that including monetary values for ecosystem service changes leads to a substantial drop in the benefit–cost ratio. On this basis, we argue for a reform of the standard cost–benefit analysis to facilitate more complete welfare assessments.     

对秦皇岛市“十二五”环境保护规划的几点思考

"十一五"期间,秦皇岛市的环境保护取得了明显的成绩,"十二五"期间,秦皇岛市的环境保护工作仍然面临严峻挑战。因此,应该遵循环境优先、不欠新账、强化治理、机制创新、注重规划衔接等原则,高水平编制秦皇岛市"十二五"环境保护规划,重点落实编制秦皇岛市主体功能区划,深入推进水污染综合治理,建立完善环境保护考核机制,加强环境保护监督管理,明确环境保护重点项目,提高规划的可操作性。     

USING CONTINGENT VALUATION AND BENEFIT TRANSFER TO EVALUATE WATER SUPPLY IMPROVEMENT BENEFITS1

ABSTRACT: Many water systems in small cities and rural areas throughout the United States are facing water quality and supply problems. These problems are typically not the result of an unexpected event, but are the result of growth trends or decreasing water quality experienced over several years. This analysis uses the contingent valuation and benefit transfer methods to evaluate the willingness to pay for a rural water system in northcentral Montana. Both of the procedures resulted in similar values, ranging from about $4.05 to $7.50 per household per month for urban residents and $5.40 to $11.50 per household per month for rural residents, which is equal to 11 percent to 23 percent of current average water costs. The willingness to pay estimates do not include non-household water users. This analysis shows that useful planning information can be obtained from relatively inexpensive contingent valuation mail survey data and the benefit transfer method as long as the limitations of the data are understood. The willingness to pay for ensuring good quality rural water supplies in the future is likely to be low compared to the costs of extensive diversion and treatment systems. Willingness to pay estimates provide decision makers with information that can be used to avoid building a large water supply system that water users do not want to connect to because of high costs.     

Wellhead treatment costs for groundwater contaminated with pesticides: A preliminary analysis for pineapple in Hawaii

In Hawaii, trace concentrations of pesticides used in the production of pineapple were found in the groundwater supplies of Mililani Town in the Pearl Harbor Basin on the island of Oahu. Groundwater serves as the major source of drinking water and residents pay for wellhead treatment of the contaminated water, via their monthly water bill. The agricultural chemical users within the Pearl Harbor Basin do not include these wellhead treatment costs in their production costs. The agricultural industry benefits from using pesticides but does not pay the entire societal cost of using these chemicals. In this study we evaluate the specific financial cost of wellhead treatment, and not the economic value of groundwater. While wellhead treatment costs could conceivably be shared by several parties, this study focuses on the financial impact of the pineapple industry alone. This study factors annual wellhead treatment costs into annual pineapple production costs to measure the effect on annual financial return from pineapple production. Wellhead treatment costs are calculated from the existing granulated activated carbon (GAC) water treatment facility for Millilani Wells I and II. Pineapple production costs are estimated from previous cost of production studies. The inclusion of wellhead treatment costs produces different production-cost results, depending on the scale of analysis. At the local scale, the Mililani wellhead treatment costs can be factored into the production costs of the pineapple fields, which were probably responsible for contamination of the Mililani Wells, without causing a deficit in economic return. At the larger regional scale, however, the return from all of the pineapple grown in the Pearl Harbor Basin can not sustain the cost of wellhead treatmentfor the entire water supply of the basin. Recommendations point to the prevention of groundwater contamination as more cost-effective measure than wellhead treatment.