Importance of indirect nitrous oxide emissions at the field, farm and catchment scale

Direct and indirect nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions and leaching losses from an intensively managed grazed pasture in the Ythan catchment, Aberdeenshire, UK, were measured and compared over a 17-month period. Simultaneous measurements of farm-wide leaching losses of N₂O were also made and catchment-wide fluxes were estimated from existing N leaching data. The relative importance of direct and indirect N₂O fluxes at the field, farm and catchment scale was then assessed. At the field scale we found that direct N₂O emissions were low (1.2 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹, 0.6% of N input) with indirect N₂O emissions via drainage waters comprising a significant proportion (25%) of total N₂O emissions. At the whole-farm scale, the N₂O-N emission factor (0.003) for leached NO₃-N (EF_5-g) was in line with the IPCC's recent downward revision. At the catchment scale, a direct N₂O flux of 1.9 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ and an indirect flux of 0.06 kg N₂O-N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ were estimated. This study lends further support to the recent downward revision of the IPCC emission factor for N₂O arising from leached N in surface and ground waters (EF_5-g) and highlights the need for multiple point sampling to ensure that the importance of indirect N₂O losses via drainage waters is not misrepresented at the farm and catchment scales.     

The impact of increasing the length of the cattle grazing season on emissions of ammonia and nitrous oxide and on nitrate leaching in England and Wales

Ammonia (NH₃) emissions from cattle are much less when they are grazing than when they are housed. The urine excreted during grazing may rapidly infiltrate soil whereas it remains on the surface of impermeable floors and yards. If the average grazing season for the UK herd could be extended from 6 to 8 months, NH₃ emissions from cattle could potentially be reduced by ca. 15% (of the total for all livestock) if the cattle spend all of the extra grazing days outdoors. The main objective of this desk study was to assess the potential of extended season grazing to reduce NH₃ emissions from UK cattle farming. The impacts on nitrate (NO₃⁻) leaching and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions were also estimated. A simple process-based model was developed to quantify the potential for extending the grazing season. A farm-scale model of NH₃ emissions at the farm-scale, based on published emission factors for UK agriculture, was used to estimate NH₃ emissions. Losses of NO₃⁻ following slurry spreading were estimated using the MANNER model, while NO₃⁻ leaching and denitrification losses during grazing were taken from output by the NGAUGE model. We conclude that one month’s extra grazing (based on the animals being outside for all of that month, day and night,) may reduce NH₃ emissions from slurry-based systems by ca. 9% and for FYM-based systems by ca. 7% compared with losses from the current ca. 180-day winter housing period. However, in practice cattle are not outdoors all day during the extended grazing period. If it is assumed that cattle graze for an average of 4 h per day over the extended period, then the monthly reduction in NH₃ emissions may be only ca. 1–2%. At all sites most of this conserved N was predicted to be lost as NO₃⁻. For slurry-based systems this could be at least 80%. For FYM-based systems, for which there was less potential to conserve NH₃, the increase in NO₃⁻ leaching was always greater than the NH₃ conserved. The effects on direct emissions of N₂O were estimated be negligible, if grazing began earlier in spring or perhaps some reduction when grazing continues for longer in autumn. We conclude that extending the grazing season will increase NO₃⁻ leaching and that further studies are needed to fully evaluate the potential for reducing emissions of NH₃.     

Global warming contributions from wheat,sheep meat and wool production in Victoria,Australia – a life cycle assessment

This paper compares the life cycle global warming potential of three of Australia’s important agricultural production activities – the production of wheat, meat and wool in grazed subterranean clover (sub-clover) dominant pasture and mixed pasture (perennial ryegrass/phalaris/sub-clover/grass and cape weed) systems. Two major stages are presented in this life cycle assessment (LCA) analysis: pre-farm, and on-farm. The pre-farm stage includes greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agricultural machinery, fertilizer, and pesticide production and the emissions from the transportation of these inputs to paddock. The on-farm stage includes GHG emissions due to diesel use in on-farm transport and processing (e.g. seeding, spraying, harvesting, topdressing, sheep shearing), and non-CO₂ (nitrous oxide (N₂O), and methane (CH₄)) emissions from pastures and crop grazing of lambs.The functional unit of this life cycle analysis is the GHG emissions (carbon dioxide equivalents – CO₂ -e) from 1 kg of wheat, sheep meat and wool produced from sub-clover, wheat and mixed pasture plots. The GHG emissions (e.g. CO₂, N₂O and CH₄ emission) from the production, transportation and use of inputs (e.g. fertilizer, pesticide, farm machinery operation) during pre-farm and on-farm stages are also included. The life cycle GHG emissions of 1 kg of wool is significantly higher than that of wheat and sheep meat. The LCA analysis identified that the on-farm stage contributed the most significant portion of total GHG emissions from the production of wheat, sheep meat and wool. This LCA analysis also identified that CH₄ emissions from enteric methane production and from the decomposition of manure accounted for a significant portion of the total emissions from sub-clover and mixed pasture production, whilst N₂O emissions from the soil have been found to be the major source of GHG emissions from wheat production.     

Effects of excretal returns and soil compaction on nitrous oxide emissions from a cattle overwintering area

Excretal returns and physical disturbance due to treading can greatly influence nitrogen flows in grazed pastures. Dung and urine depositions stimulate microbial transformations, while soil compaction and poaching change the physical environment in which these transformations take place. In this study, a cattle overwintering area in the Southwest Czech Republic was characterized with respect to bulk density, porosity, water-filled pore space (WFPS), organic C, total N, pH, microbial biomass C and denitrifying enzyme activity (DEA). Carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions were measured on four different dates between October 2001 and May 2002. Sampling took place along a transect away from an open barn with access to feed. Soil chemical and biological properties showed that deposition of excreta declined with distance from the barn. In contrast, N₂O emissions were highest at intermediate positions along the transect. At the section with the greatest animal impact, the ratio of N₂ versus N₂O produced was five-fold higher, and the soil pH was 2 units higher, compared to the section with the least animal impact, which indicated that soil conditions favoured production of N₂ rather than N₂O in the area where excretal returns and treading was intense. A multiple linear regression was conducted using data from the last sampling. There were significant effects of WFPS and pH on log-transformed N₂O emissions, while effects of NH₄⁺ and NO₃⁻, and interactions between NH₄⁺ and, respectively, WFPS and pH were nearly significant. The observations indicate that, whereas pasture management to achieve a better distribution of animal impact may improve N retention in the soil, it is not clear whether this will reduce N₂O emissions.     

An overview of the revised 1996 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventory methodology for nitrous oxide from agriculture

The IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories provide default methodologies for estimating emissions of the most important greenhouse gases at a national scale. The methodology for estimating emissions of nitrous oxide (N₂O) from agriculture was revised in 1996 by an international working group. Here we summarize this new methodology and apply it to the global data. The new method aims at assessing the full nitrogen cycle and takes into account N₂O formation in agricultural fields (direct emissions), animal waste management systems (AWMSs) as well as indirect emissions taking place at remote places after nitrogen is lost from the agricultural fields. Using the IPCC method, we estimated that global agricultural N₂O emissions almost doubled between 1960 (3.5 Tg N₂O-N) and 1994 (6.2 Tg N₂O-N). Direct emissions, animal waste management systems and indirect emissions make about equal contribution to total current emissions.     

Emissions of N2O and NH3, and nitrogen leaching from direct seeded rice under different tillage practices in central China

Tillage practices affect the fate of fertilizer nitrogen (N) through influencing transformations of N, but few studies have examined N₂O and NH₃ emissions, and N leaching from different rice tillage systems. Thus the objective of this study was to assess N₂O emission, NH₃ volatilization and N leaching from direct seeded rice in conventional tillage (CT) and no-tillage (NT) production systems in the subtropical region of China during the 2008 and 2009 rice growing seasons. Treatments were established following a split-plot design of a randomized complete block with tillage practices as the main plot and N fertilizer level as the sub-plot treatment, and there were four treatments: NT + no fertilizer (NT0), CT + no fertilizer (CT0), NT + compound fertilizer (NTC) and CT + compound fertilizer (CTC), respectively. Results showed that N fertilization significantly increased (p < 0.01) N₂O emissions, NH₃ volatilization and N leaching from rice fields in both years. In general, there was no significant difference in N₂O emissions and NH₃ volatilization between NT0 and CT0 in both years, while NTC had significantly higher (p < 0.05) N₂O emissions and NH₃ volatilization compared to CTC. Over the two rice growing seasons, NTC showed 32% and 47% higher N₂O emissions, and 29% and 52% higher NH₃ losses than CTC. Higher (p < 0.05) N₂O emissions from NTC than CTC were presumably due to higher soil organic C and greater denitrification. Total N and NO₃^? concentrations were higher (p < 0.05) in CTC than NTC, but larger volumes of percolation water in NTC than CTC resulted in no significant difference in leakage of total N and NO₃^?. Hence, application of N fertilizer in combination with NT appeared to be ineffective in reducing N losses from N fertilizer in paddy fields.     

Cover crop effects on nitrous oxide emission from a manure-treated Mollisol

Agriculture contributes 40–60% of the total annual N₂O emissions to the atmosphere. Development of management practices to reduce these emissions would have a significant impact on greenhouse gas levels. Non-leguminous cover crops are efficient scavengers of residual soil NO₃, thereby reducing leaching losses. However, the effect of a grass cover crop on N₂O emissions from soil receiving liquid swine manure has not been evaluated. This study investigated: (i) the temporal patterns of N₂O emissions following addition of swine manure slurry in a laboratory setting under fluctuating soil moisture regimes; (ii) assessed the potential of a rye (Secale cereale L.) cover crop to decrease N₂O emissions under these conditions; and (iii) quantified field N₂O emissions in response to either spring applied urea ammonium nitrate (UAN) or different rates of fall-applied liquid swine manure, in the presence or absence of a rye/oat winter cover crop. Laboratory experiments investigating cover crop effects N₂O emissions were performed in a controlled environment chamber programmed for a 14 h light period, 18 °C day temperature, and 15 °C night temperature. Treatments with or without a living rye cover crop were treated with either: (i) no manure; (ii) a phosphorus-based manure application rate (low manure): or (iii) a nitrogen-based manure application rate (high manure). We observed a significant reduction in N₂O emissions in the presence of the rye cover crop. Field experiments were performed on a fine-loamy soil in Central Iowa from October 12, 2005 to October 2, 2006. We observed no significant effect of the cover crop on cumulative N₂O emissions in the field. The primary factor influencing N₂O emission was N application rate, regardless of form or timing. The response of N₂O emission to N additions was non-linear, with progressively more N₂O emitted with increasing N application. These results indicate that while cover crops have the potential to reduce N₂O emissions, N application rate may be the overriding factor.     

Greenhouse gas abatement strategies for animal husbandry

Agriculture contributes significantly to the anthropogenic emissions of non-CO₂ greenhouse gases methane and nitrous oxide. In this paper, a review is presented of the agriculture related sources of methane and nitrous oxide, and of the main strategies for mitigation. The rumen is the most important source of methane production, especially in cattle husbandry. Less, but still substantial, amounts of methane are produced from cattle manures. In pig and poultry husbandry, most methane originates from manures. The main sources of nitrous oxide are: nitrogen fertilisers, land applied animal manure, and urine deposited by grazing animals. Most effective mitigation strategies for methane comprise a source approach, i.e. changing animals’ diets towards greater efficiencies. Methane emissions, however, can also be effectively reduced by optimal use of the gas produced from manures, e.g. for energy production. Frequent and complete manure removal from animal housing, combined with on-farm biogas production is an example of an integrated on-farm solution. Reduced fertiliser nitrogen input, optimal fertiliser form, adding nitrification inhibitors, land drainage management, and reduced land compaction by restricted grazing are the best ways to mitigate nitrous oxide emissions from farm land, whereas, management of bedding material and solid manure reduce nitrous oxide emissions from housing and storage. Other than for methane, mitigation measures for nitrous oxide interact with other important environmental issues, like reduction of nitrate leaching and ammonia emission. Mitigation strategies for reduction of the greenhouse gases should also minimize pollution swapping.     

Soil moisture determines the effectiveness of two urease inhibitors to decrease N<Subscript>2</Subscript>O emission

Among the mitigation strategies to prevent nitrogen (N) losses from ureic fertilizers, urease inhibitors (UIs) have been demonstrated to promote high N use efficiency by reducing ammonia (NH₃) volatilization. In the last few years, some field experiments have also shown its effectiveness in reducing nitrous oxide (N₂O) losses from fertilized soils under conditions of low soil moisture. An incubation experiment was carried out with the aim of assessing the main biotic mechanisms behind N₂O emissions once that the UIs N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamid (NBPT) and phenil phosphorodiamidate (PPDA) were applied with Urea (U) under different soil moisture conditions (40, 60 and 80 % water-filled pore space, WFPS). In the same study we tried to analyze to what extent soil WFPS regulates the effect of these inhibitors on N₂O emissions. The use of PPDA in our study allowed us to compare the effect of NBPT with that of another commercially available urease inhibitor, aiming to see if the results were inhibitor-specific or not. Based on the results from this experiment, a WFPS (i.e. 60 %) was chosen for a second study (i.e. mesocosm experiment) aiming to assess the efficiency of the UIs to indirectly affect N₂O emissions through influencing the pool of soil mineral N. The N₂O emissions at 40 % WFPS were almost negligible, being significantly lower from all fertilized treatments than that produced at 60 and 80 % WFPS. When compared to U alone, NBPT+U reduced the N₂O emissions at 60 % WFPS but had no effect at 80 % WFPS. The application of PPDA significantly increased the emissions with respect to U at 80 % WFPS whereas no significant effect was found at 60 %. At 80 % WFPS, denitrification was the main source of N₂O emissions for all treatments. In the mesocosm study, the application of NBPT+U was an effective strategy to reduce N₂O emissions (75 % reduction compared to U alone), due to a lower soil ammonium (NH₄ ⁺) content induced by the inhibitor. These results suggest that adequate management of the UI NBPT could provide, under certain soil conditions, an opportunity for mitigation of N₂O emissions from fertilized soils.     

测土配方施肥对湖北省N2O减排的贡献

为弄清测土配方施肥项目实施后对氧化亚氮(N_2O)排放产生的影响及其带来的经济效益.本研究通过比较传统施肥和测土配方推荐施肥的农田氮(N)投入量,依据《2006年IPCC国家温室气体清单指南》方法,分别估算了农田N_2O的直接排放和间接排放.结果表明,测土配方施肥项目从2004年开始实施至2013年的10年时间里,共减少氮肥的施用量74.39×104t(折纯N),作物产量增加1898.05×104t;10年里共减少N_2O排放总量为2.24×104t,其中由氮肥施用量减少带来的N_2O减排量为1.57×104t,作物产量提高带来的N_2O减排量为0.67×104t;湖北省不同区域的N_2O减排量与该地区项目实施面积密切相关,项目实施10年来襄阳市N_2O减排总量最大,为0.31×104t,其次是荆州市,减排量为0.26×104t,神龙架林区N_2O减排总量最小,仅为0.0034×104t;不同作物对N_2O减排的贡献以玉米减排总量最大,为0.54×104t,占减排总量的24.17%,其次为水稻,减排量为0.49×104t,芝麻减排总量最小,仅0.018×104t.按照湖北省碳交易市场最新交易价格25元·t-1C来计算,湖北省实施测土配方施肥项目10年来仅N_2O减排所带来效益可达1.74亿元.测土配方施肥项目不仅在湖北省粮食增产上有重要贡献,对减少N_2O排放也有重要贡献,并带来一定的经济效益.     

不同施肥方式下紫色土N2O与NOx的排放特征

利用紫色土长期施肥试验平台,采用静态箱-气相色谱法开展紫色土"冬小麦-夏玉米"轮作系统N_2O和NO_x排放的连续两周年(2014年11月~2016年9月)定位观测.研究了氮肥总量相同条件下的常规氮磷钾化肥(NPK)、猪厩肥(OM)、秸秆还田配施氮磷钾化肥(RSDNPK)、猪厩肥配施氮磷钾化肥(OMNPK)和氮磷钾化肥配合硝化抑制剂(DCDNPK)等施肥方式对N_2O和NO_x排放的影响,短期不施肥处理(CK)作为排放系数计算的对照.结果表明,所有施肥方式下紫色土N_2O排放峰均出现在施肥初期和大降雨过程期;NO_x排放过程与N_2O类似,排放峰出现在施肥初期,但强降雨期未出现明显排放峰.NPK、OM、RSDNPK、OMNPK和DCDNPK处理的N_2O年均累积排放量分别为:1.35、4.38、1.43、2.46、0.92 kg·hm~(-2),排放系数分别为:0.33%、1.41%、0.36%、0.73%、0.18%;相应处理的NO_x年均累积排放量分别为:0.11、0.38、0.10、0.27、0.04kg·hm~(-2),排放系数分别为:0.03%、0.13%、0.03%、0.09%、0.01%.较常规化肥,增加有机物料如施用猪厩肥和猪厩肥配施氮磷钾肥分别显著增加226%和83%的N_2O排放(P0.01),同时NO_x排放分别显著增加262%和157%(P0.01);常规化肥配合硝化抑制剂(DCDNPK)使用减少32%的N_2O排放和62%的NO_x排放(P0.01),秸秆还田配施氮磷钾肥对N_2O排放略有增加(P0.05),NO_x排放略有减少(P0.05).统计分析进一步表明,土壤无机氮含量是N_2O和NO_x二者排放的主控因子,而土壤孔隙充水率与温度分别作为N_2O与NO_x各自排放的主控因子之一.     

High fluxes but different patterns of nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide emissions from soil in a cattle overwintering area

Cattle overwintering areas common in central Europe may represent significant point sources of the important greenhouse gases, nitrous oxide (N₂O) and carbon dioxide (CO₂). A 2-year field study was carried out in order to estimate the emissions of N₂O and CO₂ from soil in a cattle overwintering area located in the southwest of the Czech Republic. The measurements were performed at three sampling locations along a gradient of animal impact (severe, moderate, slight) to test the hypothesis that emissions of CO₂ and N₂O are positively related to the degree of impact. In addition to CO₂ and N₂O fluxes determined by using non-vented manual closed chambers, soil mineral nitrogen (NH₄⁺ and NO₃⁻), pH and temperature were determined to assess their regulatory role and impact on gas fluxes. The overwintering area was about 4 ha and it had been used for overwintering of about 90 cows since 1995. Deposition of animal excreta resulted in a significant accumulation of nitrogen in the soil during winter, but most of the N₂O was emitted during a few short periods in spring and/or in late autumn. Maximum N₂O fluxes of up to 2.5 mg N₂O-N m⁻² h⁻¹ were recorded at the most impacted location near the animal house, where the highest concentrations of soil mineral nitrogen also occurred. The emissions of CO₂ showed a completely different pattern to those of N₂O, being correlated with soil temperature; the highest emissions thus occurred in June–July, while very low fluxes were found in winter. Emission values ranged from about 0 to 700 mg C-CO₂ m⁻² h⁻¹. Furthermore, the effect of animal impact on CO₂ emissions was opposite to that on N₂O fluxes, as the highest CO₂ fluxes were mostly recorded at the least impacted location, where respiration of plants most likely increased overall CO₂ production. The results show that cattle overwintering areas are important sources of greenhouse gases, including N₂O and CO₂. Fluxes of these two gases are, however, differently distributed over the year, which also suggests that they are controlled by different environmental and soil factors.     

Urease inhibitor reduces N losses and improves plant-bioavailability of urea applied in fine particle and granular forms under field conditions

A field lysimeter/mini plot experiment was established in a silt loam soil near Lincoln, New Zealand, to investigate the effectiveness of urea fertilizer in fine particle application (FPA), with or without the urease inhibitor N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT - “Agrotain”), in decreasing nitrogen (N) losses and improving N uptake efficiency. The five treatments were: control (no N) and ¹⁵N-labelled urea, with or without NBPT, applied to lysimeters or mini plots (unlabelled urea), either in granular form to the soil surface or in FPA form (through a spray) at a rate equivalent to 100 kg N ha⁻¹. Gaseous emissions of ammonia (NH₃) and nitrous oxide (N₂O), nitrate (NO₃⁻) leaching, herbage dry-matter (DM) production, N-response efficiency, total N uptake and total recovery of applied ¹⁵N in the plant and soil varied with urea application method and with addition of NBPT. Urea with NBPT, applied in granular or FPA form, was more effective than in application without NBPT: N₂O emissions were reduced by 7-12%, NH₃ emissions by 65-69% and NO₃⁻ leaching losses by 36-55% compared with granular urea. Urea alone and with NBPT, applied in FPA form increased herbage DM production by 27% and 38%, respectively. The N response efficiency increased from 10 kg DM kg⁻¹ of applied N with granular urea to 19 kg DM kg⁻¹ with FPA urea and to 23 kg DM kg⁻¹ with FPA urea plus NBPT. Urea applied in FPA form resulted in significantly (P < 0.05) higher ¹⁵N recovery in the shoots compared with granular treatments and this was improved further when urea in FPA form was applied with NBPT. These results suggest that applying urea with NBPT in FPA form has potential as a management tool in mitigating N losses, improving N-response efficiency and increasing herbage DM production in intensive grassland systems.     

节水灌溉和控释肥施用耦合措施对单季稻田CH4和N2O排放的影响

以我国华东地区典型单季稻水稻田(江苏宜兴)的原柱状土为研究对象,通过两年土柱观测试验,研究不同灌溉管理模式(长期淹水CF、间隙灌溉Ⅱ、控制灌溉CI)和氮肥施用(不施氮CK、尿素Urea和控释肥CRF)耦合措施对水稻生长期内CH4和N2O排放和产量的影响,以期优选典型单季稻田减排增效的水肥管理模式.结果表明,两种节水灌溉方式(CI和Ⅱ)均显著影响稻田土壤CH4和N2O排放量及二者的综合温室效应(GWP)和排放强度(GHGI),与CF相比,Ⅱ和CI均显著提高了 N2O排放量(P＜0.05),降低了 CH4排放量(P＜0.05),进而二者的GWP和GHGI分别显著降低28.9％～71.4％和14.3％～70.4％(P＜0.05);两种节水灌溉模式相比,CI较Ⅱ模式呈现较好的CH4减排优势,排放总量降低了 57.7％～91.8％,而二者的N2O排放量无显著性差异(P＞0.05),最终CI对GWP和GHGI的减排效应略优于Ⅱ模式2.0％～56.2％.施用氮肥(Urea和CRF)均显著促进N2O排放18.4％～2547.8％(P＜0.05),其中CRF处理N2O排放量均略高于Urea处理32.7％～78.6％,但无显著性差异(P＞0.05);CH4排放总量对施氮处理的响应随水分管理模式的不同而不同,总体而言,施用CRF较Urea对稻田土壤GWP和GHGI均无显著影响(P＞0.05).相关分析表明,2018年CF模式的Urea处理和Ⅱ模式的Urea、CRF处理中N2O排放通量与田面水NH4+-N浓度分别呈现显著(P＜0.05)和极显著的正相关关系(P＜0.01),而二者在2019年CI模式的CK和CRF处理中呈现相反规律;2018年CI模式下CK、CRF处理的N2O排放通量与田面水NO3--N浓度呈极显著的正相关关系(P＜0.01).节水灌溉和氮肥施用对水稻产量均呈显著影响(P＜0.05),与CF相比,两种节水灌溉模式(Ⅱ、CI)水稻产量均下降了 14.7％～37.7％;CRF处理较Urea处理略提高水稻产量2.5％～7.4％(P＜0.05).综合考虑稻田土壤GWP、GHGI和水稻产量,节水模式与控释肥施用对稻田土壤减排增产的耦合效应仍有待进一步研究.     

Nitrous oxide emissions from black soils with different pH

N₂O fluxes as a function of incubation time from soil with different available N contents and pH were determined. Cumulative carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions were measured to indicate soil respiration. A 144-hr incubation experiment was conducted in a slightly acidic agricultural soil (pH_H2O 5.33) after the pH was adjusted to four different values (3.65, 5.00, 6.90 and 8.55). The experiments consisted of a control without added N, and with NH₄⁺-N and NO₃^--N fertilization. The results showed that soil pH contributed significantly to N₂O flux from the soils. There were higher N₂O emissions in the period 0-12 hr in the four pH treatments, especially those enhanced with N-fertilization. The cumulative N₂O-N emission reached a maximum at pH 8.55 and was stimulated by NO₃^--N fertilization (70.4 μg/kg). The minimum emissions appeared at pH 3.65 and were not stimulated by NO₃^--N or NH₄⁺-N fertilization. Soil respiration increased significantly due to N-fertilization. Soil respiration increased positively with soil pH (R² = 0.98, P < 0.01). The lowest CO₂-C emission (30.2 mg/kg) was presented in pH 3.65 soils without N-fertilization. The highest CO₂-C emissions appeared in the pH 8.55 soils for NH₄⁺-N fertilization (199 mg/kg). These findings suggested that N₂O emissions and soil respiration were significantly influenced by low pH, which strongly inhibits soil microbial nitrification and denitrification activities. The content of NO₃^--N in soil significantly and positively affected the N₂O emissions through denitrification.     

Modelling impacts of alternative farming management practices on greenhouse gas emissions from a winter wheat–maize rotation system in China

Agricultural production plays an important role in affecting atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations. Field measurements were conducted in Quzhou County, Hebei Province in the North China Plains to quantify carbon dioxide (CO₂) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions from a winter wheat–maize rotation field, a common cropping system across the Chinese agricultural regions. The observed flux data in conjunction with the local climate, soil and management information were utilized to test a process-based model, Denitrification–Decomposition or DNDC, for its applicability for the cropping system. The validated DNDC was then used for predicting impacts of three management alternatives (i.e., no-till, increased crop residue incorporation and reduced fertilizer application rate) on CO₂ and N₂O emissions from the target field. Results from the simulations indicated that (1) CO₂ emissions were significantly affected by temperature, initial SOC, tillage method, and quantity and quality of the organic matter added in the soils; (2) increases in temperature, initial SOC, total fertilizer N input, and manure amendment substantially increased N₂O emissions; and (3) temperature, initial SOC, tillage, and quantity and quality of the organic matter added in the soil all had significant effects on global warming. Finally, five 50-year scenarios were simulated with DNDC to predict their long-term impacts on crop yield, soil C dynamics, nitrate leaching losses, and N₂O emissions. The modelled results suggested that implementation of manure amendment or crop residue incorporation instead of increased fertilizer application rates would more efficiently mitigate GHG emissions from the tested agro-ecosystem. The multi-impacts provided a sound basis for comprehensive assessments on the management alternatives.     

生物质炭对双季稻田土壤反硝化功能微生物的影响

目前,基于田间条件下生物质炭添加对稻田反硝化微生物的调控效应还不甚明确.为此,本研究采用小区试验,通过在双季稻田添加不同量的小麦秸秆生物质炭(0、24和48 t·hm-2,分别用CK、LC和HC代表),结合实时荧光定量PCR(q PCR)和末端限制性片段长度多态性(T-RFLP)分析技术,研究了生物质炭添加对双季稻田休闲季和水稻季土壤反硝化微生物相关功能基因(调控硝酸还原酶的nar G基因,亚硝酸还原酶的nir K基因和氧化亚氮还原酶的nos Z基因)的影响.由于生物质炭呈碱性,添加到土壤后,可提高稻田休闲季土壤p H 0. 2～0. 8个单位.生物质炭本身含有部分可溶性N,因此,添加生物质炭可增加休闲季土壤铵态氮(NH_4~+-N)和硝态氮(NO_3~--N)含量,增幅分别达21. 1%～32. 5%和63. 0%～176. 0%,但由于其吸附作用,降低了水稻季NH_4~+-N含量48. 8%～60. 1%.生物质炭添加增加了休闲季微生物生物量氮(MBN)含量,这可能是由于生物质炭较大的比表面积为微生物生存提供了适宜的环境,可利用养分的增加促进了微生物的生长.与对照相比,休闲季生物质炭引起的NH_4~+-N和NO_3~--N含量增加,促进NH_4~+-N向NO_3~--N的转化,进而增加nar G和nos Z的基因丰度(P0. 05),同时,生物质炭处理p H的提高促进了nos Z的基因丰度的增加,显著改变了反硝化功能基因nar G和nos Z的群落结构,并以此对反硝化作用产生影响,但未对休闲季氧化亚氮(N_2O)排放产生影响.而在水稻季,生物质炭增加了土壤nos Z的基因丰度(P 0. 05),HC处理增加了nir K基因丰度(P 0. 05),这也是导致水稻季HC处理N_2O排放增加的重要原因.生物质炭通过降低水稻季土壤NH_4~+-N含量,改变了nir K和nos Z基因的群落结构,而nar G基因群落结构的变化影响了土壤N_2O排放.综上所述,生物质炭可通过改变双季稻田土壤性质,来影响参与土壤反硝化作用的相关微生物,进而影响土壤N_2O排放及NO_3~--N的淋失.     

Integrated assessment of promising measures to decrease nitrogen losses from agriculture in EU-27

Following the recognition of the detrimental effects of nitrogen (N) losses from agriculture in the European Union (EU) on human health and environment, series of environmental policy measures have been implemented from the early 1990s onwards. However, these measures have only been partially successful. Clearly, there is lack of integration of available measures and there is lack of enforcement and hierarchy; which measures should be implemented first? We identified and assessed three ‘most promising measures’ to decrease N losses from agriculture, i.e., (i) balanced fertilization, (ii) low-protein animal feeding, and (iii) ammonia (NH₃) emissions abatement measures. Environmental-economic assessments were made using scenario analyses and the modeling tools MITERRA-EUROPE and CAPRI.In the baseline scenario (business as usual), N use efficiency (NUE) in crop production increases from 44% in 2000 to 48% in 2020, while total N losses decrease by 10%. Implementation of promising measures increases NUE further to 51–55%, and decreases NH₃ emissions (by up to 23%), nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions (by up to 10%) and N leaching losses (by up to 35%). Differences in responsiveness to promising measures varied between and within Member States. Strict implementation of balanced fertilization in nitrate vulnerable zones, as defined in the Nitrates Directive, decreases total farmers’ income in EU-27 by 1.7 billion euros per year. Implementation of all three measures decreases farmers income by 10.8 and total welfare by 17 billion euros per year, without valuing the environmental benefits.The study presented here is one of the first EU-wide integrated assessments of the effects of policy measures on all major N losses from agriculture and their economic costs. Our results show that the most promising measures are effective in enhancing NUE and decreasing NH₃ and N₂O emissions to the atmosphere and N leaching to groundwater and surface waters, but that income effects are significant. The order of implementation of the measures is important; NH₃ emissions abatement measures must be implemented together with balanced N fertilization.     

Direct nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural fields in China estimated by the revised 1996 IPPC guidelines for national greenhouse gases

Using revised 1996 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gases and statistic data in China Agricultural Yearbook, we estimated the direct nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions from agricultural fields in China for the following years: 1949, 1954, 1960, 1965, 1970, 1975, 1980, 1985, 1990 and 1995. Direct N₂O emissions have been increasing continuously, from 26 Gg N in 1949 to 336 Gg N in 1995, at a rate of 7 Gg N y⁻¹. The main reason for the rapid increase in N₂O emissions was the increase in the use of synthetic fertilizer, which contributed 0.28% to the total emissions from soils in 1949, compared with 73.7% in 1990.Modifications to some equations and parameters were made according the local agricultural practices, such as the type of crops, the use of crop residue, cultivation of leguminous green manure and the application of animal manure as fertilizer in China. The trend of direct N₂O emissions from agricultural fields in China is discussed in this paper.     

Nitrous oxide emissions from organic and conventional crop rotations in five European countries

Nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions from agriculture are currently estimated from N inputs using emission factors, and little is known about the importance of regional or management-related differences. This paper summarizes the results of a study in which N₂O emission rates were recorded on 15–26 occasions during a 12-month period in organic and conventional dairy crop rotations in five European countries (Austria, Denmark, Finland, Italy, UK). A common methodology based on static chambers was used for N₂O flux measurements, and N₂O data were compiled together with information about N inputs (from fertilizers, N₂ fixation, atmospheric deposition and excretal returns), crop rotations and soil properties. Organic rotations received only manure as N fertilizer, while manure accounted for 0–100% of fertilizer N in conventional rotations. A linear regression model was used to examine effects of location, system and crop category on N₂O emissions, while a second model examined effects of soil properties. Nitrous oxide emissions were higher from conventional than from organic crop rotations except in Austria and, according to the statistical analysis, the differences between locations and crop categories were significant. Ammonium was significantly related to N₂O emissions, although this effect was dominated by observations from a grazing system. Despite the limited number of samplings, annual emissions were estimated by interpolation. Across the two systems and five locations there was a significant relationship between total N inputs and N₂O emissions at the crop rotation level which indicated that annually 1.6 ± 0.2% (mean ± standard error) of total N inputs were lost as N₂O, while there was a background emission of 1.4 ± 0.3 kg N₂O-N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. Although this measurement program emphasized system effects at the expense of high temporal resolution, the results indicate that N input is a significant determinant for N₂O emissions from agricultural soils.