Is small hydropower beautiful? Social impacts of river fragmentation in China’s Red River Basin

Small hydropower (SHP) is promoted as a pro-poor renewable energy source that does not have the negative social impacts of large dams. This article challenges these claims, using data from a household survey in China’s upper Red River Basin. We find that SHP can fragment river systems in ways that reduce irrigation water availability, provoke changes to agricultural practices, and negatively impact river health. These social impacts of river fragmentation mainly occur in villages situated between a plant’s intake and outflow. The frequency of plant water diversions due to continued generation in the dry season significantly predicts all social impacts; installed capacity of the plant and the quality of the village’s irrigation infrastructure predict some impacts. Villages with strong local governance can negotiate with the plant to temporarily halt generation when irrigation water is needed, lessening social impacts. Our findings reveal that SHP plants are not as benign as they are made out to be; they must be built and managed according to community needs.     

聊城市城区河湖水中Hg、As浓度分布特征及健康风险评价

为了解聊城市城区河湖水中Hg、As浓度分布,于2010年12月19日采集、分析了20个表层水样中Hg、As浓度,并采用美国环境保护署推荐的健康风险评价模型对其进行了初步评价.结果表明:城区河湖水中Hg、As的质量浓度分别为0.016～0.366、0.494～23.438 μg/L,各主要河湖水中Hg的平均浓度大小为周公河＞东昌湖＞小运河＞徒骇河;As的平均浓度大小为周公河＞徒骇河＞小运河＞东昌湖;东昌湖Hg浓度超过《地表水环境质量标准》(GB 3838-2002)的Ⅲ类水标准值,超标率为71.4％.各主要河湖水中Hg、As浓度的空间分布差异显著,Hg主要来源于大气沉降和沿岸生活污水的排放,As主要来源于工业废水,两者均受到上游来水的影响.As通过饮水途径产生的健康风险值在10-6～10-4 a-1,是Hg的103～106倍,高于部分机构推荐的最大可接受风险水平(1.0×10-6 a-1).建议有关部门应加强对聊城市城区河湖水中Hg、As的监测和环境风险管理.     

Response of the Plastic Lake catchment, Ontario, to reduced sulphur deposition

As a consequence of decreases in the emission rate of sulphur in eastern North America in the late 1970s and early 1980s, sulphate deposition in central Ontario declined by about 40%, but has remained constant for about six years. Plastic Lake, a small, dilute lake on the Precambrian shield that the authors have studied since 1979, acidified between the start of the study and about 1986, but since then has not changed. The authors also monitored the chemistry of streamwater draining the Plastic Lake catchment. Water quality of runoff from an upland site improved rapidly (pH and alkalinity increased, SO4(2-) and Al decreased), but two factors offset these improvements. A small wetland area downstream reversed most of these changes, resulting in a constant output of strong acid from the catchment. In addition, in extremely dry years (1983, 1987, 1989) there were very high concentrations of SO4(2-) in the streamwater, suggesting substantial re-oxidation of reduced S in the catchment.     

Analysis of the different source terms of natural radionuclides in a river affected by NORM (Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials) activities

The present work studied the radioacitivity impact of a coal-fired power plant (CFPP), a NORM industry, on the water of the Regallo river which the plant uses for cooling. Downstream, this river passes through an important irrigated farming area, and it is a tributary of the Ebro, one of Spain’s largest rivers. Although no alteration of the ²¹⁰Po or ²³²Th content was detected, the ^234,238U and ²²⁶Ra contents of the water were significantly greater immediately below CFPP’s discharge point. The ²²⁶Ra concentration decreased progressively downstream from the discharge point, but the uranium content increased significantly again at two sampling points 8 km downstream from the CFPP’s effluent. This suggested the presence of another, unexpected uranium source term different from the CFPP. The input from this second uranium source term was even greater than that from the CFPP. Different hypotheses were tested (a reservoir used for irrigation, remobilization from sediments, and the effect of fertilizers used in the area), with it finally being demonstrated that the source was the fertilizers used in the adjacent farming areas.     

Polychlorinated biphenyls in the Kupa River, Croatia, Yugoslavia

The presence of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) was investigated in samples of water, suspended particles, sediments and fish from the Kupa river, Croatia, Yugoslavia, along a river stretch extending up to 10 km upstream and 200 km downstream of the primary contaminated karst region. Contamination was due to improper disposal of industrial waste discharge. The PCB levels detected in the samples collected downstream ranged from 1 to 52 ng 1⁻¹ for water, from 50 to 190 μg kg⁻¹ for suspended particles and from 8 to 39 μg kg⁻¹ for the sediment. A wide range of PCB concentrations, from 0.1 to 42.3 μg g⁻¹, which were measured in edible portions of different fish confirmed a long-term contamination of the river with PCBs. As the Kupa may be classified among low to moderately contaminated waters, it is essential that the investigations of the presence and behaviour of PCBs in the river and its environment be continued.     

Well water contaminated by acidic mine water from the Dabaoshan Mine, south China: chemistry and toxicity

An investigation into well water quality was carried out in a rural area subject to irrigation with acidic mine water from the Guangdong Dabaoshan Mine, southern China. The results of water pH measurements from 112 wells in two different seasons suggest that the well water has been contaminated to varying degrees in the investigated Shangba floodplain (approximately 11km south of the Guangdong Dabaoshan Mine). There is a trend that well water pH increased southwards, suggesting that the impacts of acidic irrigation water on groundwater decreased with increasing distance to the entry point of acidic irrigation water. Water quality monitoring results of the selected wells show that Cu and Cd in the water exceeded the limits set in the Chinese National Standards for Drinking Water (GB 5749-85) for the wells close to the irrigation water source. If the World Health Organization (WHO) standard was considered, Cd in some wells was almost 10 times as high as the WHO guideline value (0.003mg l(-1)). Water collected from the location closest to the acidic irrigation water source was acutely toxic to the test organism (Daphnia carinata) even after 51 time dilution. It is likely that the extremely high mortality rate of the local population reported for the study area is at least partly related to the high levels of heavy metals, particularly Cd in the drinking well water.     

Characteristics of heavy metals in soils and grains of wheat and maize from farmland irrigated with sewage

The farmland irrigation with the sewage is a common and better pathway to save the resource of groundwater in Northern China. The investigation was conducted in the farmland along the Fuhe River to explore characteristics of heavy metals in soils and grains of wheat and maize from a long-term sewage-irrigated area of Baoding region. The results showed that the topsoil with long-term sewage irrigation accumulated more Cd, Pb, and Hg compared with that of soil irrigated with groundwater and their corresponding natural background values. Cd concentrations in 48% of sewage-irrigated soil samples exceeded the Chinese safety limitation at 0.6 mg/kg, but less Cd accumulated in crop grains and did not pose the potential health risk. On the contrary, Pb levels in soils irrigated with sewage were lower than the safety limitation but Pb concentrations in 24% of wheat grain samples exceeded the Chinese national safety limit. Long-term sewage irrigation did not increase As, Cr, and Ni concentrations in soils or crop grains. The target hazard quotient (THQ) of heavy metals in edible grains of crops was selected to assess their risk to human health. Total THQ values were higher than 1.0 for the wheat samples from sewage-irrigated area and both sewage-irrigated and smelter-impacted areas, and As is the main contributor to the total THQ and posed the potential risk to human health. Therefore, the accumulation of Cd, Pb, Hg, and As in soils and crops in sewage-irrigated area should be monitored continuously to ensure food safety and security.

     

Contamination by selected chlorinated pesticides in surface waters in Hanoi, Vietnam

Fifteen insecticides, which were banned in Vietnam in the period from 1990 to 1998, were chosen for the investigation of surface water samples in Hanoi and its surroundings. The investigation was focused on an area of approximately 30 by 20 km. Thirty water samples, in total were analysed: 11 samples from the Red river, seven from the Duong river, four from various lakes (West lake, Thuyen Quang, Bay Mau, Ba Mau), six from irrigation canals and two samples from wells. The procedure was repeated in November 1998 and in August 1999. The results showed that the contamination of the banned pesticides was highest in the rivers and then in the irrigation canals, followed by the lakes and wells. These pesticides could hardly be determined in just two drinking water samples (wells) and their concentrations rarely exceeded detection limits (0.05-0.25 ng l(-1)). The mean concentrations of sigmaHCHs (alpha, beta, gamma, delta-HCH) and sigmaDDTs (2,4'-, 4,4'-DDE; 2,4'-, 4,4'-DDD; 2,4'-, 4,4'-DDT) in the rivers were 17.2 +/- 71.8 and 43.7 +/- 79.9 ng l(-1) in the dry season (DS, November 1998), 29.3 +/- 117 and 56.1 +/- 65.6 ng l(-1) in the rainy season (RS, August 1999), respectively. However, the highest concentration of DDTs detected in a river sample (DS): 0.324 microg l(-1) was much lower than their allowable limit of concentration in surface waters, which is accorded with Criteria of Vietnam (1995) (DDTs < 10 microg l(-1)). Moreover, endrin, heptachlor, aldrin were also detected in most of water samples with considerable mean concentrations in rivers: 25.3 +/- 40.5, 17.4 +/- 23.8, 11.0 +/- 9.02 ng l(-1) in the DS and 18.5 +/- 23.2, 19.3 +/- 29.0, 12.8 +/- 8.44 ng l(-1) in the RS, respectively. Heptachlor epoxide (isomer A) and dieldrin were detected in some water samples with lowest concentrations.     

DDT residues in water, sediment, domestic and indigenous biota from a currently DDT-sprayed area

DDT is used for indoor residual spraying (IRS) in Limpopo Province, northern South Africa to control malaria. Through IRS, DDT may reach the outdoor environment via dust and air and from possible spillages during application. In this area the local people consume domestic chickens, wild fish or birds. Fish from the river catchment and impoundments seem to be the major source of protein intake. Water, sediment and tissue samples from two such fish species, domestic chickens and wild birds (terrestrial and aquatic) from this DDT-sprayed area were analysed for DDT and metabolite residues. The samples contained p,p′-DDT, p,p′-DDD and p,p′-DDE residues, with the latter the most ubiquitous and in the highest concentrations. These findings raise concern that both water and food may be major routes of human exposure to DDT and metabolites, thereby posing possible adverse human health implications to the local communities.     

Lake variability: key factors controlling mercury concentrations in New York State fish

A 4year study surveyed 131 lakes across New York State beginning in 2003 to improve our understanding of mercury and gather information from previously untested waters. Our study focused on largemouth and smallmouth bass, walleye and yellow perch, common piscivorous fish shown to accumulate high mercury concentrations and species important to local fisheries. Fish from Adirondack and Catskill Forest Preserve lakes generally had higher mercury concentrations than those from lakes in other areas of the state. Variability between nearby individual lakes was observed, and could be due to differences in water chemistry, lake productivity or the abundance of wetlands in the watershed. We found the following factors impact mercury bioaccumulation: fish length, lake pH, specific conductivity, chlorophyll a, mercury concentration in the water, presence of an outlet dam and amount of contiguous wetlands.     

Correlates of mercury in fish from lakes near Clyde Forks, Ontario, Canada

Subsurface soils near Clyde Forks, Ontario, Canada, can have naturally high concentrations of mercury (Hg) from local geological sources. To investigate Hg in local aquatic food webs, Hg was measured in fish dorsal muscle (mainly yellow perch [YP] and pumpkinseed sunfish [PS]) and surface sediments from 10 regional lakes. Water chemistry, along with fork length, weight, and stable isotopes (delta15N, delta13C, delta34S) in fish were also measured. No lake sediments had elevated (>0.3microg/g dw) Hg, and average Hg concentrations in fish were not sufficiently high (<1microg/g dw) to be of concern for fish-eating wildlife. Variance in fish Hg was best explained by dietary carbon source (delta13C), and certain lake variables (e.g., pH for YP). PS with more pelagic feeding habits had higher delta34S and Hg than those with more littoral feeding habits. Potential biological linkages between fish Hg and delta34S, a parameter that may be related to the lake sulphate-reducing bacteria activity, requires further investigation.     

Effects of acid rain on growth and nutrient concentrations in Scots pine and Norway spruce seedlings grown in a nutrient-rich soil

The effects of artificially applied acid precipitation on growth and nutrient concentrations of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) seedlings were investigated in a long-term acid irrigation experiment in field conditions. Seedlings of northern and southern origin were planted in boxes containing peat and composted soil rich in nutrients, and sprinkler irrigated with water acidified with nitric and sulphuric acids to pH 3 or pH 4 for periods varying from two to three and a half growing seasons during 1986-1989. Water irrigated (pH 5.4-7.6) and non-irrigated groups of seedlings were also included in the experiment. At the end of the experiment needles, main and lateral shoots and roots were collected from the seedlings for the determination of height growth and biomass partitioning, and for the analysis of S, N, Mg, P, K, Ca, Mn and Fe concentrations. The treatment effects compared to the irrigated control were studied using multivariate analyses of variance and covariance. In the pine seedlings the total dry matter production increased by 25-70% compared with the irrigated controls when the total wet deposition to the seedlings exceeded 67 kg S ha(-1) and 36 kg N ha(-1) (e.g. after two growing seasons' exposure of the pH 3 treatment). The increase was mainly due to an increase in needle dry weight (54-72% greater at pH 3) and root weight (20-65% greater at pH 3), whereas the height growth or shoot weight growth were less affected. The northern provenance pine seedlings responded more clearly to the pH 3 irrigation than the southern ones. The treatments had no consistent effects on any of the growth variables studied in the spruce seedlings, however. The pines had higher root and foliage Ca concentrations as a result of the acid irrigation, whereas in spruce, acid rain decreased the Ca concentration in needles and shoots. Root Mn and Fe concentrations were higher in both species as a result of the pH 3 treatment. A higher soil conductivity and Ca concentration resulted from the prolonged pH 3 treatment. The results strongly support the hypothesis that the long-term growth and nutrient allocation response of conifers to acid precipitation is dependent both on the tree species and on the nutritional status of the soil.     

Integrated spatial health assessment of yellow perch (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Perca flavescens</Emphasis>) populations from the St. Lawrence River,Quebec, Canada) part A: physiological parameters and pathogen assessment

A multi-disciplinary approach was used to evaluate the health of yellow perch (Perca flavescens) in the St. Lawrence River (Quebec, Canada), which is experiencing a severe population decline in the downstream portion of the river. Physiological parameters, liver alterations, trace metal concentrations, parasite prevalence and abundance, stable isotope composition, and the presence/absence of the viral hemorragic septicemia virus (VHSV) were evaluated in perch collected at six sites along the river: Lake St. François, Lake St. Louis (north and south), Beauregard Island, and Lake St. Pierre (north and south). Trace metal concentrations in surface water were higher in Lake St. Louis and downstream of a major urban wastewater treatment plant discharge, indicating that this effluent was a significant source of Cu, As, Ag, Zn, and Cd. Levels of Pb in surface water exceeded thresholds for the protection of aquatic life in Lake St. Louis and were negatively correlated with body condition index in this lake. In Lake St. Pierre, Cu, Ag, and Cd bioaccumulated significantly in perch liver and lower body condition index and greater liver damage were observed compared to upstream sites. Parasite analyses indicated a higher abundance of metacercariae of the trematodes Apophallus brevis and Diplostomum spp. in Lake St. Louis, and VHSV was not detected in the liver of yellow perch for all studied sites. Overall, results suggested that the global health of yellow perch from Lake St. Pierre is lower compared to upstream studied sites, which could contribute to the documented population collapse at this site.     

Health risks of environmental exposure to metals and herbicides in the Pardo River,Brazil

Mixture of metals and herbicides in rivers may pose relevant risks for the health of surrounding communities. Humans may be exposed to river pollution through intake of contaminated water and fish, as well as irrigated agricultural products. The aim of this study was to assess the human health risks of environmental exposure to metals and herbicides through water and fish intake in the Pardo River. Metals (Al, As, Be, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Mn, Hg, Ni, Tl, Sn, V, and Zn) were analyzed in river water and in edible fish. Herbicides (ametryn, atrazine, diuron, hexazinone, simazine, and tebuthiuron) were analyzed in river water. Seasonal variances were also studied. Aluminum, Cd, Cu, Mn, Pb, and Zn levels in river water were higher than the USEPA benchmarks. Non-carcinogenic risks due to pollutants mixture exposure were above the limit, and carcinogenic risks of As exposure were >10^?6 in the sampling points during the rainy season. Metal levels in fish were lower than the Brazilian legislation and do not pose a threat to public health. Herbicides were detected in four sampling points, with atrazine concentrations (range 0.16–0.32 μg/L) below the Brazilian standard (2.0 μg/L), but above the European Union standard (0.1 μg/L). Considering the water supply needs of cities located in the Pardo River Basin and the persistence of metals and herbicides, the present study indicated that there was a seasonal influence on non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks to human health, especially in the rainy season. Studies for water treatment plants implantation should consider the risks of exposure to persistent substances, in order to protect the population.     

Irrigation of certain Mediterranean plants with heavy metals

The ability of some Mediterranean plant species to absorb heavy metals present in wastewater from treatment plants is researched. Their tolerance to high concentrations of heavy metals is also assessed. Myoporum sp., Nerium oleander and Geranium sp. were irrigated with wastewater, normal irrigation water, and irrigation water enriched with metals. The concentration of metals in the wastewater, irrigation water, in the soil, and in the leaves, tissues and roots of the plants were measured. The results show that treatment of plants with wastewater gives slightly increased concentrations of metals in leaves and roots. In contrast, irrigation with high concentrations of Cu₂₊, Mn₂₊ and Zn₂₊ (up to 1000 mg/1) resulted to significantly higher concentrations of these metals in the roots than in the leaves. However, all plants have been shown to tolerate high concentrations of heavy metals except Nerium oleander, which exhibited strong toxicity in leaves. The tolerance of these Mediterranean plant species to polluted environments allows them to be irrigated by wastewater from treatment plants, so as to achieve the best environmental rehabilitation of desertified Mediterranean areas.     

Human health risk from Heavy metal via food crops consumption with wastewater irrigation practices in Pakistan

The current study was designed to investigate the potential human health risks associated with consumption of food crops contaminated with toxic heavy metals. Cadmium (Cd) concentration in surface soils; Cd, lead (Pb) and chromium (Cr) in the irrigation water and food crops were above permissible limits. The accumulation factor (AF) was >1 for manganese (Mn) and Pb in different food crops. The Health Risk Index (HRI) was >1 for Pb in all food crops irrigated with wastewater and tube well water. HRI >1 was also recorded for Cd in all selected vegetables; and for Mn in Spinacia oleracea irrigated with wastewater. All wastewater irrigated samples (soil and food crops) exhibited high relative contamination level as compared to samples irrigated with tube well water. Our results emphasized the need for pretreatment of wastewater and routine monitoring in order to avoid contamination of food crops from the wastewater irrigation system.     

Ion chemistry of waters impounded by the Ziqlab dam, Jordan, and weathering processes – a case study

The area included in the present investigation is that surrounding Ziqlab dam in the northern Jordan Valley. The water chemistry of the impounded lake shows that it is dominated by Mg, Ca, Na and HCO₃. These waters reflects the dominance of carbonate weathering with some contribution of silicates. Mg + Ca + Na and HCO₃ + Cl account for about 90% of the total cations and anions. X-ray analysis shows that, kaolinte and illite are the dominant clay minerals in sediments behind Ziqlab dam. Anthropogenic activities within the Ziqlab catchments area contribute to increasing of the ionic concentrations. These include various development activities in the catchments area, waste disposal (especially the untreated municipal and domestic sewage) into the Ziqlab River, and agricultural activities. Ziqlab dam water chemistry is within the range of stability field of kaolinite.     

含莠去津和乙草胺河水灌溉对苗期水稻危害的研究

本文以１９８８、１９９２和１９９３年洋河流域张家口市部分水稻田污染受害事故为背景，通过事故现场调查资料分析、洋河水质监测、宣化区污染源调查、水稻的药害暴露实验和模型计算，研究了含有除草剂莠去津和乙草胺的河水灌溉对苗期水稻的危害。结果显示，河水中莠去津和乙草胺对水稻苗期的安全灌溉浓度分别为０．０１ｍｇ／Ｌ和０．０５ｍｇ／Ｌ；河水中莠去津对水稻的致死浓度是０．１ｍｇ／Ｌ；ｐＨ、ＮＨ３－Ｎ和表面活性剂对这种危害作用具有一定的协同效应；为了满足河水对水稻的灌溉水质要求，污染源允许排放的莠去津和乙草胺分别为１．０ｋｇ／ｄ和２．０ｋｇ／ｄ。     

Environmental fate and bioavailability of wood preservatives in freshwater sediments near an old sawmill site.

Impacts of an old contaminated sawmill site located in Eastern Finland were studied, with emphasis on transportation and bioaccumulation of wood preservatives in the surrounding water system. To assess the transportation of chlorophenols and chromated copper arsenate (CCA) from the sawmill to the nearby lake, the concentrations of these compounds in selected sediment samples were analyzed. To assess the contribution of a pulp mill further upstream, the concentration of extractable organic halogens (EOX) was analyzed. Bioaccumulation of wood preservatives from sediments was examined using Lumbriculus variegatus as test organism. In sediments collected from the sawmill area, concentrations of chlorophenols, arsenic, chromium and copper were high. In the surrounding area the concentrations of these compounds were slightly elevated at some sampling points but were mostly within the natural range of variation. Thus, it can be concluded that transportation of wood preservatives from the sawmill area to its surroundings is fairly low. However, 60 microg/l of arsenic and 50 microg/l of copper were found in water taken from a brook that runs through a landfill area of the sawmill to the nearby river, and the concentration of arsenic in the surface sediment at one sampling point in the lake was slightly elevated. The total amount of organohalogens in sediment was higher in the river and the lake than in the sawmill area. Of all the wood preservatives studied, only arsenic was found to bioaccumulate in present conditions, reaching a tissue concentration of 362 microg/g dw in organisms exposed for 28 days to sediment from the brook. High concentration of arsenic in oligochaeta tissue was related to high concentration of arsenic in the pore water.     

Decreased acid deposition and the chemical recovery of Killarney,Ontario, lakes

Lakes in Killarney Park near Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, have shown dramatic water quality changes including general increases in pH and alkalinity, and decreases in SO4(2-), base cations and metals. While some lakes have recovered to pH > 6.0, many are still highly acidic despite decades of improvement. Very high historical S deposition related to emissions from the Sudbury metal smelters dominated the acidification process in this region. However, since the implementation of substantial S emission controls (90%) at the smelters, the Sudbury emissions are no longer the major source of S deposition in the Sudbury area. Wet deposition of SO4(2-) and SO4(2-) concentrations in lakewaters at Killarney now approach values in the Dorset, Ontario, area, about 200 km from Sudbury. This suggests that the S deposition to the Killarney area is now primarily from long-range transport, not from local sources. Studies of Killarney lakes are revealing the complex nature of the chemical recovery process. As lake acidity decreases, other changes including decreased Ca2+ concentrations, increased transparency, and altered thermal regimes may potentially affect some of these ecosystems. It is clear that continuing assessments of the recovery of Killarney lakes, within a multiple-stressor framework, are needed.