国内外污染场地环境风险评估框架形成与发展

城市工业企业搬迁与退役遗留大量污染场地,其潜在环境风险受到各国政府的高度重视。在化学品风险/毒性评估的基础上,欧美等发达国家(地区)率先发展和形成了独具特色的环境风险评估框架。我国在借鉴吸纳国外先进经验的基础上,逐步形成符合国情的场地环境风险评估框架。笔者系统梳理了我国和美国、欧盟、荷兰、英国等国家(地区)的污染场地环境风险评估框架形成与发展历程;分析阐释了各框架的首要目标、决策与管理过程、科学定位、关键创新等要素及其内涵;揭示了各个国家(地区)在特定历史时期关键法律法规、政策与技术文件等的推动、支撑及指导作用等。通过对比研究可为我国场地环境风险评估框架的完善与创新发展提供有益参考。     

基于矿物晶体结构的场地重金属污染土壤结构化固定处置

重金属污染企业搬迁遗留场地的重金属污染问题是当前城市土地安全开发需解决的迫切环境问题。以广州市某钢铁企业搬迁遗留场地重金属污染土壤处置为例，系统研究污染重金属晶体结构化固定过程机制。对遗留场地土壤通过采样调查发现，在场地某些区域的土壤中，重金属Ni和Cd的浓度超过GB 15618-1995《土壤环境质量标准》二级标准，二次开发存在一定的环境风险。通过研发以氧化铝为基质的黏土固定剂，以一定比例与污染土壤混合后压实成型，在1100℃的温度下煅烧，通过X-射线衍射研究发现，烧结体中重金属以尖晶石晶体结构成分的形式固定。进一步采用TCLP毒性浸出程序研究烧结体中重金属的浸出风险，结果发现，烧结体中滤出液中重金属浓度均远低于GB 3838-2002《地表水环境质量标准》三类水标准值，获得烧结体中重金属浸出风险低。实现了重金属污染土壤的无害化处置，对于目前重金属污染企业遗留场地土壤处置具有重要意义。     

乡镇企业环境管理

本文论述了我国乡镇企业发展概况,乡镇工业污染现状和环境管理现状,分析了乡镇企业环境管理中存在的问题:1.情况不明;2.乡镇企业规划差;3.污染治理技术的推广不够;4.管理机构不健全。作者在文中提出6点对策:1.开展全国乡镇工业主要污染行业的调查;2.总结管理经验,并加以完善和提高;3.针对乡镇工业各主要污染行业,分别制订具体的管理办法和技术政策,形成一套环境管理法规体系;4.开培训,提高乡镇企业环境管理人员素质;5.建立、健全环境保护管理机构;6.加强乡镇工业污染治理示范工程的研究和建设。     

重庆市场地土壤污染特征分析及行业来源识别

近年来随着大量工业企业关闭或搬离城市地区,中国遗留场地的土壤污染问题日益突出。基于重庆市已开展调查评估的353块工业企业遗留场地数据,分析了重庆市工业场地的环境特征和土壤污染类型;采用相关性分析、主成分分析等多元统计分析方法研究了场地土壤的主要污染因子及其行业来源分布特点。结果表明:82.5%的场地土壤偏碱性,这有利于大部分重金属污染物的稳定;重庆市高风险场地共涉及23个行业,主要有化学原料和化学制品制造业、金属制品业、汽车制造业、铁路、船舶、航空航天和其他运输设备制造业等,这些主要行业的遗留场地土壤出现污染的比例达43%-57%;TPHs和Pb、Cu、Cr、Zn等重金属是重庆市场地土壤主要污染因子,出现污染的概率分别为38%-80%和65%-94%;重金属-TPHs复合污染是重庆市场地土壤的重要污染特征;Pb、Cu、Cr、Zn、Ni、苯、苯并(a)芘、TPHs等典型污染物主要来源于化工、钢铁、电镀、冶炼、运输设备制造业等主要行业。Pb、Cu、Cr、Zn、Ni5种重金属,苯和苯并(a)芘,Pb、Cu、Cr、Zn和TPHs之间呈显著正相关,表明这些污染物可能有着相似的行业来源;Cu、Cr、Zn、Ni主要受金属制品业和运输设备制造业的影响,苯和苯并(a)芘主要受化学原料和化学制品制造业的污染排放影响,而Pb和TPHs的行业来源分布比较广泛。研究结果可为重庆市工业场地的土壤污染防治和风险管控提供科学依据。     

中国污染控制政策的评估及展望

论文对近10年来中国污染控制政策的演变历程和发展特点进行了分析,指出污染控制政策总体上呈现出由单环节末端治理向全过程污染控制演变,由单纯强调工业"三废"控制向工业、城市和农业全方位污染综合防治演变,由单一指令控制手段向行政、经济与技术综合手段演变等3个显著特点;运用影响因素评价矩阵,对当前的主要污染控制政策进行了系统评估,指出目前我国污染控制政策总体执行效果不显著;最后提出了未来中国污染控制政策的基本走向,一是完善污染控制的法律法规体系,二是建立和完善环境影响评价制度、环境目标责任制度和排污许可证制度等三项重点环境管理制度,三是加强环境税收、排污权交易、环境公共财政、生态补偿、绿色资本市场等七项环境经济政策的改革与创新.     

化学品环境风险管理需求与战略思考

在广泛调研收集化学品环境风险与污染危害等资料基础上,结合化学品环境管理的国内外形势与现状,针对我国目前存在的化学品环境管理体制不完善、环境风险防控工作滞后和技术支撑能力不足等问题,从国家战略层面分析了我国化学品全生命周期环境与健康风险管理需求,提出了我国化学品环境风险管理中长期发展目标及行动计划。行动计划涵盖了健全化学品法律法规和制度体系、系统开展化学品危害筛查和风险评估、推动有毒有害化学品的限制与淘汰、加强有毒有害化学品环境污染防治、提升化学品风险评估与管理能力和促进产业绿色发展等方面建议,对于我国加快构建完善的化学品风险管控制度和技术体系具有重要的参考和借鉴意义。     

食物链途径人体健康风险评估的关键内容探讨

食物是人类生存的重要保障,食品安全事关人类生命健康.食品污染始于农田耕地,还包括生产制造、包装、贮存、运输、加工等环节,每个步骤处理不当都可能发生食品安全问题.农田为食物来源的基石,是空气、水体中污染物的汇,随着城市的扩张,人类经济活动导致农田污染加剧.人类从食物中摄取污染物与经口、呼吸、皮肤的途径一样,是人体健康风险评估不可缺少的考量因素之一.我国对食品安全非常重视,2010年1月原卫生部根据《食品安全法》建立《食品安全风险监测管理规定》和《食品安全风险评估管理规定》(试行),这两份文件涵盖了从土壤到餐桌一系列的风险过程.但由于每个过程产生的原因、污染物影响机制均不同,规定离具体实际应用目标还很远.2014年环保部以保护生态环境,保障人体健康为根本,为加强污染场地环境保护监督管理,规范污染场地人体健康风险评估,发布了《污染场地风险评估技术导则》,该文建立了土壤污染造成人体健康风险评价的操作方法.然而导则考虑了经口、皮肤、呼吸及饮用地下水等9种暴露途径和评估模型,唯独缺少经食物链暴露这一重要途径的相关内容.本文以英、美两国食物链途径的场地污染风险评估为依据开展了详细探讨,深入分析了评估程序中关于土地利用方式的分类、目标人群暴露特征、污染物在食物链中传输路径、模型选取及暴露参数等内容,以期为我国制定《食物链暴露途径风险评估导则》提供一定的参考依据和指导方法.     

石油烃污染场地环境风险评价与风险管理

石油烃污染场地是我国最突出环境问题之一,目前该领域的环境风险评价与管理仍十分薄弱.论文较系统地分析了国际上石油烃污染场地环境管理方法的特点和发展趋势,并结合我国的实际情况,提出了在我国建立基于风险的石油烃污染场地环境管理模式的对策建议,同时指出了问题最突出、形势最为紧迫的污染场地类型,即加油站和储油罐的渗漏问题.该类石油烃污染场地分布广,危害严重,需要高度重视这一方面的研究与环境管理.基于风险的石油烃污染场地环境管理中,污染场地的环境风险评价是核心内容.围绕这一中心问题,论文深入阐述了包括基于风险的场地分类方法、场地环境标准的制定、评价指标的选取以及模型方法的应用等内容,指出目前国际上对于石油烃污染场地管理的主流模式主要呈现4大特点:1)基于风险的场地管理取代了通用的、一刀切的环境质量标准;2)分层次的方法(Tiered Approach)得到广泛采用;3)指示污染物和石油馏分相结合的方法逐渐取代了基于总石油烃的评价方法;4)各种预测模型得到广泛应用.     

试论我国工业污染防治的政策取向

为解决工业污染问题,我国早有“把污染消除在生产过程之中”的提法,在有关法规中也已有明文,但是防止污染的思想并没有成为有组织的社会行动,污染处理(控制)的管理思想仍然占据着环境管理的主导地位.由此而引发的把末端处理处置作为追求目标的控制污染的社会行为不能不引起忧虑.本文从对我国现行污染控制政策评述出发,剖析了环境管理实践中现行污染控制政策遇到的障碍,提出了我国工业污染防治政策的调整方向和行动计划的建议.     

场地土壤重金属污染健康风险评价及固化处置——以东莞市某电镀厂搬迁场地为例

以广东省东莞市某典型电镀厂搬迁场地为研究对象,在对搬迁场地土壤进行全面调查及土壤重金属污染风险评价的基础上,研发了基于粘土矿物的重金属深度固化技术,以重金属污染土壤为原料制备烧结砖体,实现重金属污染土壤的资源化利用。土壤重金属含量分析结果表明46个土壤样品中镉、汞、镍及锌含量均低于中国《土壤环境质量标准》(GB 15618─1995)中二级标准值,但砷、铜、铬和铅含量在部分样点高于国家二级标准值。健康风险评价结果显示该场地中铬、铅、砷和铜对儿童存在潜在的非致癌危害,而砷对成人、儿童均存在明显的致癌风险。在以上该场地土壤重金属含量调查和重金属健康风险评价基础上,对重金属超标土壤采用基于矿物晶体结构的异位固化处置,以粘土为基质,使污染土壤与粘土充分混合后压制成砖,煅烧后重金属以晶体结构的形式固定于砖体中。采用美国环保署EPA基于毒性对废物进行危险或非危险性鉴别的标准方法 TCLP(US EPA 1311)的毒性浸出实验结果表明,浸出液中重金属浓度低于《地表水环境质量标准》(GB 3838─2002)三类水标准值,实现场地重金属污染土壤的无害化处置。该研究针对典型搬迁工业场地建立了一套行之有效的重金属污染土壤风险评价及无害化处置的工艺流程,可为促进广东省土壤污染修复产业的形成与发展提供借鉴。     

Stabilization treatment of contaminated soil: a field-scale application in Shanghai,China

Stabilization is one of the best demonstrated available technologies for treating toxic pollutants in soils and has been used worldwide but is rarely used for treatment of contaminated sites in China despite many bench-scale studies. Here, a field-scale application of stabilization treatment in Shanghai, China was summarized to demonstrate the whole engineering process and the key technical issues regarding stabilization of contaminated soil. A site contaminated with arsenic (As) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), formerly used as a lighting plant in Shanghai, was chosen as the demonstration site. Stabilizing measures were taken to treat the contaminated soil to reuse the site for residential purposes. The whole engineering remediation process consisted of phase I environmental site assessment (ESA) and phase II ESA, quantitative human health risk assessment, remediation alternatives evaluation, bench-scale testing, remedial design, engineering implementation, and post-remediation assessment. A third party conducted evaluation monitoring indicated desirable results were achieved via the stabilization treatment. In addition, some technical obstacles related to soil stabilization treatment were discussed, including soil quality evaluation, stabilization effectiveness validation, and soil reuse assessment.     

Spatial health risk assessment and hierarchical risk management for mercury in soils from a typical contaminated site,China

Due to rapid urbanization and the implementation of ecological civilization construction in China, many industrial factories have been closed or relocated. Therefore, numbers of contaminated sites were generated with contaminated soils which may pose a risk to receptors living nearby. This study presented a spatial health risk assessment and hierarchical risk management policy making for mercury (Hg) in soils from a typical contaminated site in the Hunan Province, central China. Compared with the second class value (0.3 mg/kg) of the Chinese Environmental Quality Standard for Soils, the mean concentrations of Hg in the three soil depths exceeded the second class value. The non-carcinogenic risk of Hg probably posed adverse health effects in 41, 30 and 36 % of the surface soil, the moderate soil and subsoil, respectively, under a sensitive land scenario. The non-carcinogenic risk temporarily posed no adverse health effects in most areas under an insensitive land scenario except for the area around sampling site S29. Spatially, the central, southwest and northeast parts of the contaminated land under a sensitive land scenario should be regarded as the priority regions. For non-carcinogenic effects, the exposure pathways that resulted in the higher levels of exposure risk were ingestion and inhalation of vapors, followed by dermal contact and inhalation of particles. A risk-based integrated risk management policy including the hierarchical risk control values for different soil depths and the calculated remediation earthwork was proposed with consideration of the cost-benefit effect for the related decision-makers.     

Strategies for improving human health in contaminated situations: a review of past,present and possible future approaches

Strategies for improving human health in contaminated situations have traditionally been based on restricting emissions, remedial reduction of exposure and, where appropriate and possible, medical reconnaissance of efficacy. We review these and the broader aspects of general public health approaches, including necessary understanding of epidemiology and the wider social context, before considering a specific local case study involving health issues associated with chromium-contaminated land and its remediation in an area of urban regeneration. The impact of remediation upon the common good, in its broadest environmental, health and socio-economic sense, including enhanced opportunities for members of the community to take personal responsibility for health-improving activities, should be taken into account in addition to conventional theoretical assessments and practical measurements of relief from environmental risk. Rapidly emerging toxicogenomic technologies may have a role to play in informing future risk assessment and remediation approaches in contaminated situations, although the ethical challenges of using personal genetic information could well be considerable.     

Mitigation and remediation technologies for organic contaminated soils

Organic contaminated soils have become a widespread environmental problem, which may lead to a great threat to the quality of agricultural production and to human health. Physical, chemical, and biological technologies have been employed for the mitigation and remediation of organic contaminated soils. This paper reviews the progress of mitigation and remediation technologies for organic contaminated soils and suggests two different strategies for the mitigation of ’slightly-contaminated’ agricultural soils and the remediation of ‘heavily-contaminated’ soils/sites, respectively. On this basis, directions for future research in this field are suggested.     

北京市某废弃化工厂的人类健康风险评价

由于北京城市化速度的加快,五环路内的工厂将陆续搬迁,搬迁后的土地,使用功能将发生根本性变化,由于修复成本较高,是否对受污染土地进行修复,需要借助健康风险评价,以便确保人们的健康安全.运用美国的健康风险评价框架,对北京市某废弃化工厂场地进行了健康风险分析,计算了将该废弃场地用作居住用地对人类的健康风险指数及确定是否需要进行修复.在场地内,分2次进行了3层土壤采样,共采集到80个样品.选取Cr、Zn、Ni、Pb、Hg、Cu、As、Cd、DDT、六六六(HCH)和邻苯二甲酸二辛酯(DP)11种超标污染物作为目标污染物,对其进行健康风险评价.按照美国EPA的方法,选取了95%置信上限含量进行风险指数的计算.评价结果显示,该场地成人的非致癌风险指数为15.85,儿童的非致癌风险指数为18.17,均超过了非致癌风险指数可接受值1.0,表明该化工厂场地对成人和儿童均有非致癌风险;对成人,邻苯二甲酸二辛酯的致癌风险指数为不可接受值(>1×10-4),对儿童,邻苯二甲酸二辛脂和DDT的致癌风险为不可接受值(>1×10-4),其它污染物的致癌风险均在可接受范围之内.由于案例中的场地将被用作居住用地,建议对该场地进行部分修复.     

Human health risk assessment of explosives and heavy metals at a military gunnery range

In this research, a risk assessment was undertaken in order to develop the remediation and management strategy of a contaminated gunnery site, where a nearby flood controlling reservoir is under construction. Six chemicals, including explosives and heavy metals, posing potential risk to environmental and human health, were targeted in this study. A site-specific conceptual site model was constructed, based on effective, reasonable exposure pathways, to avoid any overestimation of the risk. Also, conservative default values were adapted to prevent underestimation of the risk when site-specific values were not available. The risks posed by the six contaminants were calculated using the API’s Decision Support System for Exposure and Risk Assessment, with several assumptions. In the crater-formed-area (Ac), the non-carcinogenic risks (i.e., HI values) of tri-nitro-toluene (TNT) and Cd were slightly larger than 1, but for RDX (Royal Demolition Explosives) was over 50. The total non-carcinogenic risk of the whole gunnery range was calculated to be 62.5, which was a significantly high value. The carcinogenicity of Cd was estimated to be about 10⁻³, while that for Pb was about 5 × 10⁻⁴, which greatly exceeded the generally acceptable carcinogenic risk level of 10⁻⁴–10⁻⁶. It was concluded from the risk assessment that there is an immediate need for remediation of both carcinogens and non-carcinogens before construction of the reservoir. However, for a more accurate risk assessment, further specific estimations of the changes in environmental conditions due to the construction of the reservoir will be required; and more over, the effects of the pollutants to the ecosystem will also need to be evaluated.     

健康风险评估方法在中国重金属污染中的应用及暴露评估模型的研究进展

经济的快速发展导致中国环境质量日趋恶化.随着健康意识的增强,人们越来越重视污染物暴露人群的健康风险评估.与其他污染物相比,重金属污染区域广,重金属暴露人群多且集中.为了研究重金属暴露条件下人群的健康风险,USEPA 模型、统计模型、地理信息系统、可给性研究的方法已被中国不同学者应用.暴露评估模型作为污染物暴露人群健康风险评估的主要环节,国外的研究已经比较成熟,但相关研究在中国还处于空白阶段.对中国近年来在城市表层土壤（灰尘）、矿区土壤、膳食、地下水和饮用水、大气颗粒物进行重金属风险评估中应用的健康风险评估方法,进行了归纳和评述,并对欧美常用暴露评估模型：环境暴露评估模型、膳食暴露评估模型进行了介绍.中国健康风险评估工作起步晚,在评估的各环节均存在很大缺陷.随着新技术的发展以及人群对环境健康风险认识的深化,健康风险评估将成为中国热门研究领域之一.污染的环境行为、剂量一效应关系、模型、风险信息等方面,将是未来中国健康风险评估研究的重点.     

RBCA、CLEA及CalTOX模型在苯并[a]芘污染场地健康风险评估中的应用比较

为探讨不同模型对污染场地健康风险评估结果的影响,以苯并[a]芘为例,采用RBCA、CLEA和CalTOX模型对某工业污染场地表层土壤进行健康风险评估,分析了评估结果的差异和原因,同时对模型的主要暴露参数进行了敏感性分析,并推导出基于风险概率分布的土壤修复限值。结果表明,RBCA、CLEA和CalTOX模型计算的苯并[a]芘致癌总风险分别为2.40×10-4、6.32×10-4和7.04×10-6,且经口摄入和皮肤接触2个途径对人体健康造成的危害最大。降解作用是影响CalTOX模型风险评估结果不同于RBCA和CLEA模型的重要因素,3个模型间参数取值及方法学的差异也会导致风险评估结果不同。各模型暴露参数的敏感性排序也有差异。采用基于风险概率分布的方法推导土壤修复限值,RBCA、CLEA和CalTOX模型所得结果分别为0.18、0.08、0.13(不考虑降解作用CalTOX模型)和10.74(考虑降解作用CalTOX模型)mg·kg-1,为各模型直接推导值的1.5～2.6倍。基于风险概率分布的方法可有效降低风险评估过程中参数不确定性的影响,为工业污染场地土壤修复值的制定提供参考。     

The nature and significance of public exposure to arsenic: a review of its relevance to South West England

In South West England, more than two hundred years of intensive exploitation of metalliferous ore deposits, combined with the natural processes of pedogenesis from mineral-rich parent rocks, has resulted in the creation of a aignificant area of arsenic-contaminated wastes and soils. The scale of arsenic dispersion by natural and anthropogenic processes is such that 722 km² of land contains concentrations of arsenic in excess of 110 g g^–1, more than twice the maximum that might be expected in a normal soil.The general rationale for the clean-up of derelict and contaminated mining sites often includes aesthetic factors and the desirability of preventing the dispersion of contaminants beyond the site boundaries. Only in extreme cases is public health directly invoked as justification for remediation. In South West England, if arsenic constitutes a genuine threat to the public, an increased rate of site remediation would be justified. The primary purpose of this review is to establish whether or not widespread arsenic contamination (principally of soils) has any measurable effects on public health in South West England, and how this might affect current contaminated site remediation policy. The review is based on data from previous research in the region, and other relevant international studies of mining and smelting communities, and other populations exposed to elevated arsenic concentrations. The literature reviewed also includes the determination of the extent and sources of contamination, and pathways between source and man.While the contamination of potable waters in some countries has led to measurable health effects, this scenario has not yet been identified in South West England, and there is little reason to believe that significantly contaminated potable water supplies would escape detection for extended periods of time under the current monitoring regime.In relative terms (based on both globaland local data), one of the most significant links between contaminated soils and humans appears to be contaminated food stuffs. In absolute terms, such exposure is low due to the natural constraints on arsenic uptake by herbage, cereal crops and vegetables, and the food chain does not appear to have been significantly compromised in South West England. Chronic health effects are unlikely as excessive arsenic concentrations in locally grown food crops remain rare.With the problems of confounding medical and social factors, it is not surprising that studies in South West England have failed to identify chronic exposure to arsenic at very low concentrations as a significant health risk. Those studies that indicate otherwise do not stand up to close scrutiny. It appears that the number of additional deaths arising from the widespread arsenic contamination in South West England is small. The relative benefits of a costly statistical study to actually determine the number of additional deaths might be considered minimal, but one major area could benefit from further studies: the sensitivity of certain population sub-groups to environmental arsenic exposure. Of particular interest are children, for whom significant exposure to arsenic via soil ingestion may be occurring.Based on available information, there appears to be no justification for a large programme of site remediation. Resources should, however, be expended on enlightening the general public, and private and governmental organisations as regards the gap between the perceived and actual significance of arsenic contamination in South West England.To whom correspondence should be addressed.