Pollutant dispersion in idealized city models with different urban morphologies

The mechanism of pollutant dispersion in idealized city models is investigated numerically by the introduction of a uniformly distributed pollutant source at street pedestrian level. We first study three short city forms with a single main street or two crossing streets, characterized by street length/street height ratios of L/H = 6 or 7 and a street height/street width ratio of H/W = 1, including a sharp-edged round city model, a smooth-edged round city model, and a sharp-edged square city model. For short city models with a single street and a parallel approaching wind, pollutant dilution mainly depends on the horizontal flow rate which decreases along the street. This decreasing rate is smallest for the smooth-edged round city model, which results in the lowest street concentrations. For city models with two crossing streets and the approaching wind parallel to the main street, the differences in overall city form result in different dispersion processes. For a sharp-edged round city model with two crossing streets, an approaching wind slightly non-parallel to the main street generates a lower pollutant concentration in the entire street volume. We also studied a sharp-edged round city model with one narrow street (L/H = 6; H/W = 6.7), finding that the uniformly distributed pollutants are transported from two street entries to the city centre, and are then removed out across the street roof. In contrast to the short city models we studied a single-street sharp-edged long rectangular city model (L/H = 21.7; H/W = 1) in which the horizontal flow rate remained nearly constant in a region far from the two entries. Within this region the turbulence across the street roof contributed more to the pollutant removal than vertical mean flows.     

Analysing the nocturnal wind field in the city of Graz

The city of Graz is located in a basin southeast of the main ridge of the Alps. In wintertime during the night a weak southerly wind up to 100 m above ground level (a.g.l.) above which a relatively strong northwesterly low-level jet develops. Different authors have reported on this phenomenon but a sound physical explanation has still not been found. During the dispersion of atmospheric trace elements – Graz project (DATE) this wind shear has also been observed by the use of hourly tethered balloon soundings. Here a case study is presented performed with the Graz mesoscale model (GRAMM), where the main features of the observed complex flow field were simulated. We hypothesised that the observed wind shear has its origin in a flow separation, where a part of the nocturnal, northwesterly out-valley wind flows over the hill range located west of the city of Graz, and the rest flows around it. This hypothesis was tested with the help of the numerical simulations. Furthermore, sensitivity studies were made, which revealed that the choice of the initial “background” wind direction and the internal Froude number in the model exerted a strong influence on the flow field in the city area.     

山地城市暴雨径流污染特性及控制对策

为了解山城重庆的暴雨径流污染特性,充实国内仍然薄弱的基础资料,对4种用地类型的4场暴雨进行了监测,测试指标包括TSS、COD、TP、TN和NH3-N。结果表明,对于坡度2.5%的交通干道和坡度30%的校园人行道,从污染物浓度降幅的角度考虑初期径流的控制量应分别为2～3 mm和1.8 mm。随降雨时间的延长,路面污染物浓度迅速降低,坡度越大,降低速率越快。对于平均浓度,校园屋顶和草坪的各污染物浓度均达到地表水环境质量Ⅴ类标准(总氮和氨氮除外)。交通干道和校园人行道的总磷平均浓度也满足地表水环境质量Ⅴ类标准,但2种下垫面的COD、TN和氨氮平均浓度分别超出地表水环境质量Ⅴ类标准的2～8倍、1.9～3.1倍和1.9～4.3倍。对于交通干道,场次降雨径流的总氮、总磷和氨氮平均浓度与初期浓度的比值和污染物浓度20 min降幅接近(分别为0.5～0.53和50%～55%)接近,而COD和TSS平均浓度与初期浓度的比值和污染物浓度20 min降幅相近(分别为0.35～0.37和78%～84%)。对于校园人行道,污染物浓度20 min降幅均达到90%以上(90%～96%),场次降雨径流的总氮、总磷、氨氮、COD和TSS的平均浓度与初期浓度的比值接近(0.3～0.4)。研究结果为山地城市暴雨径流的污染控制提供了参考。     

高原山体遮挡对湖泊和城区风场的影响

为了探究高原山体遮挡对湖泊和城区上空风场变化的影响,选取昆明市西山和西山东侧的草海及部分城区为研究对象,以1∶1 800的缩尺比制作了实物模型,利用风洞实验模拟了有山体遮挡和无山体遮挡在主导风西南风作用下的风场变化,并结合数值模拟验证了有山体遮挡情况下的风洞实验。实验结果表明：山体遮挡对下风向的山脚区和湖泊区风速影响较大;山体高度为260和460 m时,距离山体4 500 m范围内山体对下风向山脚区和湖泊区中部及南部的风速削减较大;山体高度为110 m时,山体对下风向区域的影响主要体现在对山前风速的削减,并未对湖泊和城市区域产生较为明显的风速梯度变化。     

裸土风蚀型开放源起尘对城市空气颗粒物的影响评估

多个城市的空气颗粒物源解析结果表明,开放源是北方城市空气颗粒物的最主要贡献者,是影响空气颗粒物达标的重要源类,其中裸土风蚀尘是空气颗粒物最主要来源。以天津市为例,利用箱模型和源解析模型测算了天津市裸土风蚀型开放源的起尘量及其对城市空气颗粒物的贡献值。计算结果表明,裸土风蚀型开放源总悬浮颗粒物(TSP)的起尘量为13.18×104t/a,平均贡献值为103.53μg/m3,PM10的起尘量为5.28×104t/a,平均贡献值为41.45μg/m3。表明裸土风蚀的起尘量对环境空气质量的影响绝不能低估,应该重视裸土风蚀型开放源的污染控制。     

小风条件下工业园区无组织VOCs溯源方法

为在小风条件下对工业园区周边监测点的无组织VOCs来源进行溯源解析,建立了以烟团积分扩散模型为基础的工业园区无组织VOCs排放溯源模型。通过小风条件下烟团积分扩散模型,计算有组织VOCs排放源对园区下风向监测点的VOCs质量浓度贡献;并结合上风向监测点背景值（VOCs）及下风向监测点质量浓度值（TVOCs）,计算无组织排放源对下风向监测点的质量浓度贡献。根据无组织VOCs排放面源的位置坐标,利用小风条件下烟团积分扩散模型,建立无组织排放源与下风向监测点之间的响应模型;再利用最小二乘法反演出各无组织面源的VOCs排放强度,最后得到VOCs从各无组织排放源到下风向监测点的质量浓度和各监测点的浓度贡献比。在此基础上,推断出各监测点的无组织VOCs来源。溯源结果说明：在监测点S₁,无组织排放源D₁的污染物贡献率为25.71%,D₂的污染物贡献率为5.24%,D₃的污染物贡献率为3.81%;在监测点S₄,无组织排放源D₁的污染物贡献率为14.59%,D₂的污染物贡献率为36.31%,D₃的污染物贡献率为4.83%;在监测点S₁₂,无组织排放源D₁的污染物贡献率为20.17%, D₂的污染物贡献率为0.33%,D₃的污染物贡献率为0.39%。统计结果表明,工业园区无组织VOCs的理论计算值与实际值的误差平方和 R为0.001 5。本研究结果可为小风条件下工业园区无组织VOCs排放溯源解析提供参考。     

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin and dibenzofuran in urban air of an Andean city

Particle-bound polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) in ambient air were monitored together with particulate matter less than 10 μm (PM₁₀) at three sampling sites of the Andean city of Manizales, Colombia; during September 2009 and July 2010. PCDD/Fs ambient air emissions ranged from 1 fg WHO-TEQ m⁻³ to 52 fg WHO-TEQ m⁻³ in particulate fraction. The PM₁₀ concentrations ranged from 23 μg m⁻³ to 54 μg m⁻³. Concentrations of PM₁₀ and PCDD/Fs in ambient air observed for Manizales - a medium sized city with a population of 380 000 - were comparable to concentrations in larger cities. The highest concentrations of PCDD/Fs and PM₁₀ found in this study were determined at the central zone of the city, characterized by public transportation density, where diesel as principal fuel is used. In addition, hypothetical gas fractions of PCDD/Fs were calculated from theoretical K_p data. Congener profiles of PCDD/Fs exhibited ratios associated with different combustion sources at the different sampling locations, ranging from steel recycling to gasoline and diesel engines. Taking into account particle and gas hypothetical fraction of PCDD/Fs, Manizales exhibited values of PCDD/Fs equivalent to rural and urban-industrial sites in the southeast and center of the city respectively. Poor correlation of PCDDs with PM₁₀ (r = −0.55 and r = 0.52) suggests ambient air PCDDs were derived from various combustion sources. Stronger correlation was observed of PCDFs with PM₁₀. Poor correlation between precipitation and reduced PM₁₀ concentration in ambient air (r = −0.45) suggested low PM₁₀ removal by rainfall.     

Characterization of PM10 atmospheric aerosol at urban and urban background sites in Fuzhou city, China

Background

PM₁₀ aerosol samples were simultaneously collected at two urban and one urban background sites in Fuzhou city during two sampling campaigns in summer and winter. PM₁₀ mass concentrations and chemical compositions were determined.

Methods

Water-soluble inorganic ions (Cl^?, NO ₃ ^? , SO ₄ ^2? , NH ₄ ⁺ , K⁺, Na⁺, Ca²⁺, and Mg²⁺), carbonaceous species (elemental carbon and organic carbon), and elements (Al, Si, Mg, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Br, and Pb) were detected using ion chromatography, thermal/optical reflectance, and proton-induced X-ray emission methods, respectively.

Results

PM₁₀ mass concentrations, as well as most of the chemical components, were significantly increased from urban background to urban sites, which were due to enhanced anthropogenic activities in urban areas. Elements, carbonaceous species, and most of the ions were more uniformly distributed at different types of sites in winter, whereas secondary ion SO ₄ ^2? , NO ₃ ^? , and NH ₄ ⁺ showed more evident urban-background contrast in this season. The chemical mass closure indicated that mineral dust, organic matters, and sulfate were the most abundant components in PM₁₀. The sum of individually measured components accounted for 86.9?C97.7% of the total measured PM₁₀ concentration, and the discrepancy was larger in urban area than in urban background area.

Conclusion

According to the principal component analysis?Cmultivariate linear regression model, mineral dust, secondary inorganic ions, sea salt, and motor vehicle were mainly responsible for the PM₁₀ particles in Fuzhou atmosphere, and contributed 19.9%, 53.3%, 21.3%, and 5.5% of PM₁₀, respectively.     

西安市城市主干道路面径流污染及沉淀特性研究

在西安市城市主干道南二环路建立路面径流采样站,利用自制流量等比例采样装置,采集2009年3-11月的34场降雨径流,测试研究径流SS、COD事件平均浓度(EMC)、有机污染物赋存状态,并就降雨特征对径流污染的影响进行相关分析,还采用累积曲线法对16场径流水样进行沉淀实验,研究沉淀对径流中污染物的去除效果.结果表明,城市...     

Evaluation of urban photochemical models for regulatory use

There has been an increasing recognition of the need to evaluate, systematically and quantitatively, the performance of air quality models used for regulatory purposes. However, previous evaluations of urban photochemical models have not tested the ability of the model to predict the change in ozone that will result from a given change in emissions, a necessary feature for a model to be used for regulatory purposes. Instead, the evaluations have tested the models' ability to reproduce ozone production for a variety of meteorological conditions. This paper presents an evaluation of the Urban Airshed Model based on Denver, Colorado data that includes both changes in daily maximum ozone due to changes in meteorology, and changes in daily maximum ozone due to changes in emissions. It is shown that the emissions change testing produces an assessment of the Urban Airshed Model that is fairly independent of the one based on meteorological change. Important inferences about model performance do not carry over from one case to the other. Thus, an emissions change testing should be included in assessing whether an urban photochemical model is good enough for regulatory use.     

Validation and application of obstacle-resolving urban dispersion models

The development of micro-scale meteorological models has progressed in recent years. Some of them are already commercially available. With little hesitation, consulting engineers apply them to complex real-world problems. How accurate are the results? Using the example of urban dispersion models, the paper tries to give a critical assessment of the present ‘state of application’.     

环境条件对土壤中磺胺间甲氧嘧啶降解的影响

通过在实验室模拟不同的环境条件,研究常用兽药抗生素--磺胺间甲氧嘧啶(SMM)在土壤中的降解动态及其影响因素(如微生物和光照,土壤含水量、药物起始浓度等).结果表明,SMM在土壤中的降解遵循一级反应动力学方程.SMM在土壤中的降解主要是光降解和化学降解,微生物降解只占较小比例;土壤含水量的增加明显加快了SMM的降解速率,因而可以通过降低土壤中SMM残留浓度或提高土壤含水量等方法加速SMM的降解.以降低其对环境土壤和水体的风险;SMM的降解速率随土壤中SMM起始浓度增加而降低,表明土壤中降解微生物对SMM的浓度敏感.     

The influence of atmospheric stability and the urban heat island on urban-rural wind speed differences

Mean hourly wind speed data for several sites in and near London were examined to determine the relative effects of the seasonal and diurnal variation of atmospheric stability and the urban heat island on urban-rural wind speed differences. A “critical” wind speed exists below which urban wind speeds are faster, and above which urban speeds are slower, than rural wind speeds. When regional wind speeds are high, the frictional effect of the city surface is the dominant factor, but under conditions of light regional airflow, strong rural atmospheric stability and intense urban heat island development, the more unstable city atmosphere allows a greater flux of momentum to the surface, thus maintaining higher wind speeds within the city.     

The potential of statistical state space models in urban ozone forecasting

State space models for tropospheric urban ozone prediction are introduced and compared with linear regression models. The linear and non-linear state space models make accurate short-term predictions of the ozone dynamics. The average prediction error one hour in advance is 7 μg/m³ and increases logarithmically with time until it reaches 26 μg/m³ after 30 days. For a given sequence of solar radiation inputs, predictions converge exponentially with a time scale of 8 hours, so that the model is insensitive to perturbations of more than 150 μg/m³ O₃. The slow increase of the prediction error in addition to the uniqueness of the prediction are encouraging for applications of state space models in forecasting ozone levels when coupled with a model that predicts total radiation. Since a radiation prediction model will be more accurate during cloud-free conditions, in addition to the fact that the state space models perform better during the summer months, state space models are suitable for applications in sunny environments.     

A comparison study of three urban air pollution models

The predictions of three urban air pollution models with varying degrees of mathematical and computational complexities are compared against the hourly SO₂ ground-level concentrations observed on 10 winter nights of the RAPS experiment in St. Louis. The emphasis in this study is on the prediction of urban area source concentrations. Statistics for the paired comparison of predictions of each model with the observations are presented. The RAM and the ATDL model with stable diffusion coefficients overestimated the observed night-time concentrations. The results show that the performance of the ATDL model with near-neutral diffusion coefficients is comparable to the more sophisticated 3-D grid numerical model.     

Spatial distribution of heavy metals in urban soils of Naples city (Italy)

Concentrations of surface and sub-surface soil Cu, Cr, Pb and Zn in the Naples city urban area were measured in 1999. Contourmaps were constructed to describe the metals spatial distribution. In the most contaminated soil samples, metals were speciated by means of the European Commission sequential extraction procedure. At twelve sites, Cu, Pb and Zn levels in soil were compared with those from a 1974 sampling. Many surface soils from the urban area as well as from the eastern industrial district contained levels of Cu, Pb and Zn that largely exceeded the limits (120, 100 and 150 mg kg(-l) for Cu, Pb and Zn, respectively) set for soils of public, residential and private areas by the Italian Ministry of Environment. Chromium values were never above regulatory limits(120 mg kg(-1)). Copper apparently accumulates in soils contiguous to railway lines and tramway. Cu and Cr existed in soil mainly inorganic forms (-68%), whereas Pb occurs essentially as residual mineral phases (77%). The considerable presence of Zn in the soluble, exchangeable and carbonate bound fraction (23%) suggests this element has high potential bioavailability and leachability through the soil. Concentrations of Cu, Pb and Zn have greatly increased since the 1974 sampling, with higher accumulation in soils from roadside fields.     

On applicability of model aerosol distributions for urban region of Bratislava city

Long-term measurements of spectral atmospheric transparency are analysed to describe the aerosol size distribution as well as the aerosol optical thickness in the urban region of Bratislava city, capital of Slovak Republic. Aerosol characteristics are related to the most frequent air masses, especially to the continental polar (cP—with a 54% occurrence) and maritime polar (mP—with 34% occurrence), to the wind direction and speed, as well as to the relative humidity. Including both random and systematic errors of the observations into the calculation procedures, the aerosol optical thickness is obtained with approximately 4% error at all wavelengths. Averaged values of the aerosol optical thickness τ_a(λ) at reference wavelength λ=520 nm vary over a wide range, from 0.1 to 0.7. Besides, the aerosol optical thickness of the continental polar air mass is obviously higher than corresponding values in the maritime polar air mass. It is shown that the transformation inside the air mass reflects the changes of the optical characteristics of aerosols, especially during decay of air mass. The function τ_a(λ) seems to be monomodal in the majority of cases, with the mode position about λ≈400 nm for cP, and λ≈500 nm for mP. A value of power parameter δ of the function τ_a(λ)≈λ^−δ is about 0.8–1.6 for maritime polar and about 0.3–1.2 for continental polar. Two simple model functions (Junge and gamma) are examined to find a best fit of real distribution retrieved from the aerosol optical thickness data using the inverse techniques based on Mellin transform. The gamma function much better than Junge's function supply the real aerosol component of all studied air masses (mainly for cP and mP). The average modal radius of gamma distribution practically does not exceed the value of 0.06 μm. Real distributions retrieved using a Mellin transform give an averaged morning value of particle modal radius r_m about 0.084 μm, and averaged daily value r_m about 0.054 μm.     

Numerical modeling on air quality in an urban environment with changes of the aspect ratio and wind direction

Due to heavy traffic emissions within an urban environment, air quality during the last decade becomes worse year by year and hazard to public health. In the present work, numerical modeling of flow and dispersion of gaseous emissions from vehicle exhaust in a street canyon were investigated under changes of the aspect ratio and wind direction. The three-dimensional flow and dispersion of gaseous pollutants were modeled using a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model which was numerically solved using Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations. The diffusion flow field in the atmospheric boundary layer within the street canyon was studied for different aspect ratios (W/H?=?1/2, 3/4, and 1) and wind directions (θ?=?90°, 112.5°, 135°, and 157.5°). The numerical models were validated against wind tunnel results to optimize the turbulence model. The numerical results agreed well with the wind tunnel results. The simulation demonstrated that the minimum concentration at the human respiration height within the street canyon was on the windward side for aspect ratios W/H?=?1/2 and 1 and wind directions θ?=?112.5°, 135°, and 157.5°. The pollutant concentration level decreases as the wind direction and aspect ratio increase. The wind velocity and turbulence intensity increase as the aspect ratio and wind direction increase.     

Effect of non-zero divergence wind fields on atmospheric transport calculations

The use of wind fields that do not satisfy the equation of continuity exactly can introduce significant errors in the calculation of the atmospheric transport of chemical species. Results are presented showing that non-zero divergence winds, used as inputs to a transport equation of conservation form, can introduce local fictitious production or destruction rates into the numerical calculations. A divergence-corrected form of the equation, which is mathematically equivalent but not numerically equivalent to an advection form of the equation, can eliminate these undesirable effects as well as the advection form equation can. The divergence-corrected form of the equation leads exactly to the conservation form when massconsistent winds are used. Also, it has the desirable property that the numerical form can preserve, to a large extent, integral conservation relations of the original mass balance equation even when Δ ·V ≠ 0. The effects of using non-zero divergence winds appear as first-order chemical reactions. These terms are compared quantitatively with the rates of several tropospheric chemical reactions.