Description of pollutant dispersion in an urban street canyon using a two-dimensional lattice model

The pollutant dispersion in a street canyon has been described in this work by using an isothermal two-dimensional lattice model coupled to the Smagorinsky sub-grid scale model. The influence of the ratio between the height of the upstream and downstream canyon walls, as well as the gap distance between them on the flow pattern, was analyzed considering the situations of ‘open country’ or isolated street canyon and ‘urban roughness’ in which the influence of an urban fabric was considered. The model determined the trajectories of a large number of passive tracer particles released in the computational domain, making it easy to visualize the flow regimes established in each case. The results agreed with the observations reported from the experiments showing a strong influence on the flow inside the canyon exerted by the upstream landscape configuration.     

On the influence of the urban roughness sublayer on turbulence and dispersion

The concept of the urban roughness sublayer is discussed and this lowest atmospheric layer over a rough surface is shown to have a non-negligible vertical extension over typical urban surfaces. The existing knowledge on the turbulence and flow structure within an urban roughness sublayer is reviewed, focusing on the height dependence of turbulent fluxes and a scaling approach for turbulence statistics, such as velocity variances, in the above-roof part of the roughness sublayer. Finally, the implication of this turbulence and flow structure upon dispersion characteristics is investigated. The most prominent difference of explicitly taking into account the roughness sublayer in a dispersion simulation (as compared to assuming a `constant flux layer') is a clearly enhanced ground level concentration far downwind from the source. For the example of a tracer release experiment over a (sub) urban surface (Copenhagen) it is shown that introducing the roughness sublayer clearly improves the model performance.     

Street canyon ventilation and atmospheric turbulence

Operational models for pollutant dispersion in urban areas require an estimate of the turbulent transfer between the street canyons and the overlying atmospheric flow. To date, the mechanisms that govern this process remain poorly understood. We have studied the mass exchange between a street canyon and the atmospheric flow above it by means of wind tunnel experiments. Fluid velocities were measured with a Particle Image Velocimetry system and passive scalar concentrations were measured using a Flame Ionisation Detector. The mass-transfer velocity between the canyon and the external flow has been estimated by measuring the cavity wash-out time. A two-box model, used to estimate the transfer velocity for varying dynamical conditions of the external flow, has been used to interpret the experimental data. This study sheds new light on the mechanisms which drive the ventilation of a street canyon and illustrates the influence of the external turbulence on the transfer process.     

Experimental analysis of particle concentration heterogeneity in a ventilated scale chamber

The mixing processes of the aerosol particles from an outdoor environment in a ventilated scale chamber were experimentally studied. The particles were classified into five groups by size: 0.3–0.5 μm, 0.5–1.0 μm, 1.0–3.0 μm, 3.0–5.0 μm and 5.0–10.0 μm. The developing process for the concentration of each particle group was measured in different kinds of flow fields.The results show that the flow field configuration can effectively influence the dispersion time rate of the particles at certain positions. The increase in particle diameter can decrease the dispersion time rate. When the gas flow velocity is high, the particle dispersion time rate is independent of particle size; but when the gas flow velocity is low, particle size can significantly affect the particle dispersion time rate because the turbulent diffusion becomes important in the air and particle transport. The uniformity of the particle concentration for certain positions in steady state tends to be controlled by the inflow velocity, flow field configuration and the particle diameters.     

On the escape of pollutants from urban street canyons

Pollutant transport from urban street canyons is numerically investigated using a two-dimensional flow and dispersion model. The ambient wind blows perpendicular to the street and passive pollutants are released at the street level. Results from the control experiment with a street aspect ratio of 1 show that at the roof level of the street canyon, the vertical turbulent flux of pollutants is upward everywhere and the vertical flux of pollutants by mean flow is upward or downward. The horizontally integrated vertical flux of pollutants by mean flow at the roof level of the street canyon is downward and its magnitude is much smaller than that by turbulent process. These results indicate that pollutants escape from the street canyon mainly by turbulent process and that the net effect of mean flow is to make some escaped pollutants reenter the street canyon. Further experiments with different inflow turbulence intensities, inflow wind speeds, and street aspect ratio confirm the findings from the control experiment. In the case of two isolated buildings, the horizontally integrated vertical flux of pollutants by mean flow is upward due to flow separation but the other main results are the same as those from the control experiment.     

Numerical simulation of scalar dispersion downstream of a square obstacle using gradient-transport type models

We present a numerical study of scalar transport released from a line source downstream of a square obstacle to investigate the capabilities and limitations of gradient-transport modeling in predicting atmospheric dispersion. The standard k–? and k–ω models and a Reynolds Stress Transport closure are employed and compared to predict the time-averaged turbulent flow field, while a standard gradient–diffusion model is initially adopted to relate the scalar flux to mean gradients of the concentration field. The analysis of two algebraic closures for turbulent scalar fluxes based on the generalized-gradient–diffusion hypothesis and its quadratic extension is also presented. In spite of the rather simple flow setup, where both the flow and the scalar fields can be assumed homogeneous in the spanwise direction, the analysis clarifies several critical issues concerning gradient-transport type models. We established the dominant role of predicted turbulent kinetic energy on scalar dispersion when a scalar diffusivity is employed, irrespectively of the Reynolds stress closure adopted for the averaged momentum equation. Moreover, the standard gradient–diffusion hypothesis failed to predict the streamwise component of the scalar flux, which is characterized by a counter-gradient-transport mechanism. Although the resulting contribution in the averaged scalar transport equation is small in the present flow configuration, this limitation can become severe for strongly inhomogeneous flows in the presence of point sources, where the spread of the scalar plume is essentially three-dimensional. The predictive capabilities of gradient-transport type modeling are found clearly improved using algebraic closures, which appear to represent a promising tool for predicting atmospheric dispersion in complex flows when unsteady transport mechanisms are not dominant.     

Estimation of local scale dispersion from local breakthrough curves during a tracer test in a heterogeneous aquifer: the Lagrangian approach

The local scale dispersion tensor, Dd, is a controlling parameter for the dilution of concentrations in a solute plume that is displaced by groundwater flow in a heterogeneous aquifer. In this paper, we estimate the local scale dispersion from time series or breakthrough curves, BTCs, of Br concentrations that were measured at several points in a fluvial aquifer during a natural gradient tracer test at Krauthausen. Locally measured BTCs were characterized by equivalent convection dispersion parameters: equivalent velocity, v(eq)(x) and expected equivalent dispersivity, [lambda(eq)(x)]. A Lagrangian framework was used to approximately predict these equivalent parameters in terms of the spatial covariance of log(e) transformed conductivity and the local scale dispersion coefficient. The approximate Lagrangian theory illustrates that [lambda(eq)(x)] increases with increasing travel distance and is much larger than the local scale dispersivity, lambda(d). A sensitivity analysis indicates that [lambda(eq)(x)] is predominantly determined by the transverse component of the local scale dispersion and by the correlation scale of the hydraulic conductivity in the transverse to flow direction whereas it is relatively insensitive to the longitudinal component of the local scale dispersion. By comparing predicted [lambda(eq)(x)] for a range of Dd values with [lambda(eq)(x)] obtained from locally measured BTCs, the transverse component of Dd, DdT, was estimated. The estimated transverse local scale dispersivity, lambda(dT) = DdT/U1 (U1 = mean advection velocity) is in the order of 10(1)-10(2) mm, which is relatively large but realistic for the fluvial gravel sediments at Krauthausen.     

Wind tunnel study of air entrainment into two-dimensional dense gas plumes at the Chemical Hazards Research Center

Experiments in a neutrally stable wind tunnel boundary layer were made for two-dimensional (quasi-line) sources of carbon dioxide dispersing over two types of uniformly spaced (billboard) surface roughness elements. Velocity and concentration measurements were made with each surface roughness over a wide range of source Richardson number by varying carbon dioxide release rate and wind speed. Concentration measurements were made with a FID gas analyzer using an ethane tracer in the source gas, and velocity measurements were made with independent LDV and HWA systems. For each surface roughness, this paper describes the wind tunnel boundary layer and presents alongwind and vertical concentration profiles in the gas plume. Vertical velocity and concentration profiles were measured at selected downwind distances, and the profiles were integrated to confirm the consistency of the measurements with the mass of carbon dioxide released. The data are intended for development of improved vertical turbulent entrainment correlations for use in dense gas dispersion models applied to hazardous chemical consequence analyses.     

Concentration field and turbulent fluxes during the mixing of two buoyant plumes

In this work an experimental study of mixing of two identical plumes, carried out in a turbulent neutral boundary layer generated in a wind tunnel, is presented. Measurements have been performed with fast flame ionisation detectors (FFIDs) and a two-component Laser-Doppler Anemometer system. Results allow the study of both the average and the fluctuating concentration field, including the turbulent vertical and longitudinal mass fluxes, in single plumes and during the interaction of two identical plumes. This information gives insight into the details of the mixing phase of the two plumes. Results of trajectories and additional rise (due to plume interactions) have been compared with previous measurements carried out in laminar cross-flows, showing similar behaviour. Concentration distributions in plume cross-sections in turbulent cross-flows differ from those measured in laminar cross-flows. Average vertical and longitudinal velocity measurements into the plume core show the strength of the shielding effect of the upwind plume and some details of interaction between the counter-rotating vortex pairs (CVPs). For large values of the alignment angle φ, between the line joining the stacks and the cross-flow, an average negative vertical velocity is measured in the middle of the plume even if its centre of mass is rising. This downward velocity is induced by the slow interaction of the CVPs and generates a vertical stretching of the plume and negative rise enhancement. Vertical turbulent fluxes change sign on the plume centreline and are of opposite sign with respect to the longitudinal turbulent fluxes. Results indicate a good linearity between vertical turbulent fluxes and concentration gradients, with different proportionality for the top and bottom parts of the plume (especially in the near field) indicating that dispersion could be described by a gradient-transfer model.     

Flow and dispersion in street intersections

Street intersections play an important role in determining pollutant concentrations in the urban canopy – vehicle emissions often increase in the vicinity of road intersections, and the complex flow patterns that occur within the intersection determine the pollutant fluxes into adjoining streets and into the atmosphere. Operational models for urban air quality therefore need to take account of the particular characteristics of street intersections. We have performed an experimental and numerical investigation of flow and dispersion mechanisms within an urban intersection, and on the basis of our observations and results, we have developed a new operational model for pollutant exchanges in the intersection, which takes account of the non-uniformity of the pollutant fluxes entering and leaving the intersection. The intersection is created by two streets of square cross-section, crossing orthogonally; concentrations were measured by releasing a neutrally buoyant tracer gas from a line source located in one of the streets. As a general result, the numerical simulations agree well with the measurements made in the wind tunnel experiments, except for the case of ground-level concentrations, where the computed concentrations far from the axis of the line source are significantly lower than the measured values. In the first part of the study we investigate the influence of an intersection on the velocity and concentration fields in the adjoining streets; we show that the immediate influence of the intersection extends within the adjoining streets, to a distance of the order of the characteristic size of the streets. A large recirculating vortex is formed at the entrance to the cross-wind streets, and this determines the exchange of pollutants between the streets and the intersection. For some wind directions the average velocity in the street segment between intersections is the same as that which occurs in an infinitely long street with the same wind, but for other angles the average velocity in the finite-length street is significantly lower. The average concentration along a finite-length street is significantly different from that observed in an infinitely long street. In the second part of the study we investigate how the pollutant fluxes in the incoming streets are redistributed amongst the outgoing streets. An analysis of the mean streamlines shows that the flows remain relatively planar, with little variation over the vertical, and we have exploited this result to develop a simple operational model for the redistribution of pollutant fluxes within the intersection. This model has been further adapted to take account of the influence of fluctuations in wind direction over typical averaging periods. The resulting model is used in the street network model SIRANE.     

Intercalibration of a passive wind-vane flux sampler against a continuous-flow denuder for the measurements of atmospheric ammonia concentrations and surface exchange fluxes

A passive wind-vane flux sampler is a simple low-cost device used to estimate long-term vertical fluxes of ammonia in the atmospheric surface boundary layer. The passive flux sampler measures the horizontal flux of ammonia. A vertical gradient of the horizontal flux, combined with micro-meteorological measurements of wind speed and temperature, is used to estimated the vertical flux of ammonia using a modified aerodynamic gradient technique. The passive wind-vane flux sampler gradient was calibrated against a gradient measured with fast response (6 min) continuous-flow denuders. The measurements were carried out at a heathland located in an intensive farming area in the centre of the Netherlands. A field campaign took place over 70 day period in the summer of 1996, during which the sampling periods of the passive wind-vane flux sampler varied between 3 and 9 days. The comparison clearly showed that the long-term measurements with the passive wind-vane flux samplers gave accurate average ammonia deposition values for the field campaign as a whole which deviated by only 18% from the reference flux. However, there was no significant correlation between the fluxes from the passive samplers and the reference method for the individual 10 periods which were compared. Possible explanations found for the lacking correlation were (I) a high percentage number of half-hour emission events within each period resulted in a significant large relative deviation between the fluxes, and (II) uncertainties in the reference method might also explain the lacking correlation. The passive wind-vane flux samplers proved to be a stable method for long-term measurements (months to years) due to a close to 100% optimal functioning during the field campaign.     

Transverse vertical dispersion in groundwater and the capillary fringe

Transverse dispersion is the most relevant process in mass transfer of contaminants across the capillary fringe (both directions), dilution of contaminants, and mixing of electron acceptors and electron donors in biodegrading groundwater plumes. This paper gives an overview on literature values of transverse vertical dispersivities alpha(tv) measured at different flow velocities and compares them to results from well-controlled laboratory-tank experiments on mass transfer of trichloroethene (TCE) across the capillary fringe. The measured values of transverse vertical dispersion in the capillary fringe region were larger than in fully saturated media, which is credited to enhanced tortuosity of the flow paths due to entrapped air within the capillary fringe. In all cases, the values observed for alpha(tv) were < 1 mm. The new measurements and the literature values indicate that alpha(tv) apparently declines with increasing flow velocity. The latter is attributed to incomplete diffusive mixing at the pore scale (pore throats). A simple conceptual model, based on the mean square displacement and the pore size accounting for only partial diffusive mixing at increasing flow velocities, shows very good agreement with measured and published data.     

Using illumination and shadow to model aerodynamic resistance and flow separation: An isotropic study

The momentum extracted from fluid flow by the underlying surface roughness is important for understanding processes of entrainment, transportation and deposition of sediments. The parameter z₀ is a length scale that characterizes the loss of wind momentum attributable to the roughness elements. However, it is very difficult to estimate accurately and precisely even under carefully controlled conditions in wind tunnels. This limits the use of the parameter over large areas and in particular across scales of roughness, e.g., grain to form scale. This is problematic for studies of wind erosion and dust dispersion which require estimates of aerodynamic resistance over very large areas.A new concept is proposed with the potential to unify the estimates of fluid flow resistance along the continuum of sparse to tightly packed object spacing and across multiple scales. It is based on the creation of shadows by the illumination of roughness elements and the assumption that flow separation is created behind roughness elements on a plane surface as a function of free-stream wind velocity and obstacle height. The concept was implemented using a computer program and validated against a wind tunnel study that estimated z₀ for configurations of spheroids. Various spheroid coverages used in the wind tunnel study were reconstructed using a digital elevation model of the surface simulated by the computer. A strong relationship was established (R²=0.91) over two orders of magnitude between the shadow area ratio (SAR) and z₀.Fluid drag was shown to be dependent on the arrangement of roughness elements at the surface. The configurations of spheroids were replaced by cylinders of the same basal area and computer simulations of shadow area were repeated. Object shape was evidently important to the overlap of shadow with downstream adjacent obstacles and hence aerodynamic resistance was dependent on object shape. These findings appear to contradict empirical evidence of previous studies.Illumination and shadow of objects on a plane surface appears to adequately represent z₀. Shadow appears to approximate the flow separation behind an obstacle and to represent a wake. The overlap on to downstream adjacent objects of the shadow cast from an upstream object appears to mimic the interference of wakes caused by fluid flow moving around stationary objects with close spacing. There is a compelling argument for the use of SAR as a unifying measure of aerodynamic resistance over the continuum between isolated and tightly packed objects. Furthermore, given elevation data of objects on a plane surface the results show that shadow length is a point-based measure that may be integrated for all points evaluated to provide SAR. The demonstrated angular relationship between illumination and drag (shadow and flow separation) has considerable potential for estimating aerodynamic resistance over multiple scales and for significant investigations of (i) the anisotropic nature of aerodynamic resistance and (ii) its estimation using directional measurements of reflectance and bidirectional reflectance models.     

Investigation of a systematic offset in the measurement of organic carbon with a semicontinuous analyzer

Organic carbon (OC) was measured semicontinuously in laboratory experiments of steady-state secondary organic aerosol formed by hydrocarbon + nitrogen oxide irradiations. Examination of the mass of carbon measured on the filter for various sample volumes reveals a systematic offset that is not observed when performing an instrumental blank. These findings suggest that simple subtraction of instrumental blanks determined as the standard analysis without sample collection (i.e., by cycling the pump and valves yet filtering zero liters of air followed by routine chemical analysis) from measured concentrations may be inadequate. This may be especially true for samples collected through the filtration of small air volumes wherein the influence of the systematic offset is greatest. All of the experiments show that filtering a larger volume of air minimizes the influence of contributions from the systematic offset. Application of these results to measurements of ambient concentrations of carbonaceous aerosol suggests a need for collection of sufficient carbon mass to minimize the relative influence of the offset signal.     

Evaluation of dynamic subgrid-scale models in large-eddy simulations of neutral turbulent flow over a two-dimensional sinusoidal hill

Large-eddy simulation (LES) is used to simulate neutral turbulent boundary-layer flow over a rough two-dimensional sinusoidal hill. Three different subgrid-scale (SGS) models are tested: (a) the standard Smagorinsky model with a wall-matching function, (b) the Lagrangian dynamic model, and (c) the recently developed scale-dependent Lagrangian dynamic model [Stoll, R., Porté-Agel, F., 2006. Dynamic subgrid-scale models for momentum and scalar fluxes in large-eddy simulation of neutrally stratified atmospheric boundary layers over heterogeneous terrain. Water Resources Research 42, W01409. doi:10.1029/2005WR003989]. The simulation results obtained with the different models are compared with turbulence statistics obtained from experiments conducted in the meteorological wind tunnel of the AES (Atmospheric Environment Service, Canada) [Gong, W., Taylor, P.A., Dörnbrack, A., 1996. Turbulent boundary-layer flow over fixed aerodynamically rough two-dimensional sinusoidal waves. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 312, 1–37]. We find that the scale-dependent dynamic model is able to account, without any tuning, for the local changes in the eddy-viscosity model coefficient. It can also capture the scale dependence of the coefficient associated with regions of the flow with strong mean shear and flow anisotropy. As a result, the scale-dependent dynamic model yields results that are more realistic than the ones obtained with the scale-invariant Lagrangian dynamic model.     

Urban tracer dispersion experiments during the second DAPPLE field campaign in London 2004

As part of the DAPPLE programme two large scale urban tracer experiments using multiple simultaneous releases of cyclic perfluoroalkanes from fixed location point sources was performed. The receptor concentrations along with relevant meteorological parameters measured are compared with a three screening dispersion models in order to best predict the decay of pollution sources with respect to distance. It is shown here that the simple dispersion models tested here can provide a reasonable upper bound estimate of the maximum concentrations measured with an empirical model derived from field observations and wind tunnel studies providing the best estimate. An indoor receptor was also used to assess indoor concentrations and their pertinence to commonly used evacuation procedures.     

A direct passive method for measuring water and contaminant fluxes in porous media

This paper introduces a new direct method for measuring water and contaminant fluxes in porous media. The method uses a passive flux meter (PFM), which is essentially a self-contained permeable unit properly sized to fit tightly in a screened well or boring. The meter is designed to accommodate a mixed medium of hydrophobic and/or hydrophilic permeable sorbents, which retain dissolved organic/inorganic contaminants present in the groundwater flowing passively through the meter. The contaminant mass intercepted and retained on the sorbent is used to quantify cumulative contaminant mass flux. The sorptive matrix is also impregnated with known amounts of one or more water soluble 'resident tracers'. These tracers are displaced from the sorbent at rates proportional to the groundwater flux; hence, in the current meter design, the resident tracers are used to quantify cumulative groundwater flux. Theory is presented and quantitative tools are developed to interpret the water flux from tracers possessing linear and nonlinear elution profiles. The same theory is extended to derive functional relationships useful for quantifying cumulative contaminant mass flux. To validate theory and demonstrate the passive flux meter, results of multiple box-aquifer experiments are presented and discussed. From these experiments, it is seen that accurate water flux measurements are obtained when the tracer used in calculations resides in the meter at levels representing 20 to 70 percent of the initial condition. 2,4-Dimethyl-3-pentanol (DMP) is used as a surrogate groundwater contaminant in the box aquifer experiments. Cumulative DMP fluxes are measured within 5% of known fluxes. The accuracy of these estimates generally increases with the total volume of water intercepted.     

An experimental study of flow and transport in fractured slate

A series of laboratory tracer migration experiments in a single rock fracture have been performed, and the breakthrough curves have been interpreted using mathematical modelling. Discrepancies were observed between the experimental data and the predictions made using a simple advection-dispersion model. The potential reasons for these discrepancies have been investigated by applying more complex models: one model incorporates channelling of flow within the fracture, the other couples dispersion and advection in the fracture with rock-matrix diffusion. It is concluded that chanelling of flow can adequately explain the observed spreading behaviour; rock-matrix diffusion is not a significant mechanism influencing transport in these experiments.     

Numerical calculation of flow and stack-gas concentration fluctuation around a cubical building

A numerical simulation model was developed to predict the instantaneous concentration fluctuation of a plume and applied to stack-gas diffusion around a cubical building. The flow field, including an instantaneous velocity component, was predicted using the large eddy simulation (LES) method in the developed numerical model. Then, the instantaneous concentration fluctuation was predicted using the obtained unsteady flow field. Concentration was calculated using the finite difference method, in which the LES is expanded for concentration, and the puff method, in which small volumes of the tracer gas are divided and combined according to the calculation mesh sizes. In order to avoid numerical viscous effects, a puff method and finite difference method were applied separately in the regions near and far from the stack-gas release point, respectively. Then, the flow field around a cubical building and the diffusion of stack-gas, emitted from an elevated point source at an upstream position of the building, were calculated using the model mentioned above. Numerical calculation results were compared with those obtained in wind tunnel experiments in which concentration fluctuation was measured using high-response flame ionization detectors. Although there were some discrepancies in the flow field between the calculated results and those of wind tunnel experiments, e.g., the calculated windward length of a cavity region behind the building, the calculated mean velocity and turbulent intensity showed good agreement with those of the wind tunnel experiments. Furthermore, the calculated concentration fluctuation showed good agreement with that in the wind tunnel, not only regarding the features of fluctuating concentration signals, but also statistic quantities, viz., mean concentration, fluctuation intensity and high-concentration values.