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1.
《Atmospheric environment (Oxford, England : 1994)》2007,41(39):8963-8979
Multi-year inventories of vehicular emissions at a high spatial resolution of 40 km×40 km were established in China using the GIS methodology for the period 1980–2005, based on provincial statistical data from yearbooks regarding vehicles and roads, and on the emission factors for each vehicle category in each province calculated by COPERT III program. Results showed that the emissions of CH4, CO, CO2, NMVOC, NOx, PM10, and SO2 increased from 5, 1066, 19 893, 169, 174, 26, and 16 thousand tons in 1980 to 377, 36 197, 674 629, 5911, 4539, 983, and 484 thousand tons in 2005 at an annual average rate of 19%, 15%, 15%, 15%, 14%, 16%, and 15%, respectively. Statistical analysis of vehicular emissions and GDP showed that they were well positively correlated, which revealed that increase of pollutant emissions has been accompanying the growth of GDP. Spatial distribution of pollutant emissions was rather unbalanced: over three-quarters of the total emissions concentrated in developed regions of China's southeastern, northern and central areas covering only 35.2% of China's territory, while the remaining emissions were distributed over the southwestern, northwestern and northeastern regions covering as much as 64.8% of the territory. In 2005, the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region, the Yangtze River Delta, and the Pearl River Delta covering only 2.3%, 2.2%, and 1.9%, respectively, of the territory, generated about 10%, 19%, and 12%, respectively, of the total emissions. Since 1990, motorcycles have been the major contributors to the CH4, CO, NMVOC, and PM10 emissions, due to the large population. Heavy-duty vans were the major contributors to the NOx and SO2 emissions because of high emission factors. Passenger cars contributed about one third of the emissions of each pollutant. Contributions of vehicle categories to emissions varied from province to province, due to the diversity of vehicle compositions among provinces. 相似文献
2.
《Atmospheric environment (Oxford, England : 1994)》2001,35(15):2679-2695
In this paper the authors have estimated for 1990 and 1995 the inventory of greenhouse gases CO2, CH4 and N2O for India at a national and sub-regional district level. The district level estimates are important for improving the national inventories as well as for developing sound mitigation strategies at manageable smaller scales. Our estimates indicate that the total CO2, CH4 and N2O emissions from India were 592.5, 17, 0.2 and 778, 18, 0.3 Tg in 1990 and 1995, respectively. The compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of these gases over this period were 6.3, 1.2 and 3.3%, respectively. The districts have been ranked according to their order of emissions and the relatively large emitters are termed as hotspots. A direct correlation between coal consumption and districts with high CO2 emission was observed. CO2 emission from the largest 10% emitters increased by 8.1% in 1995 with respect to 1990 and emissions from rest of the districts decreased over the same period, thereby indicating a skewed primary energy consumption pattern for the country. Livestock followed by rice cultivation were the dominant CH4 emitting sources. The waste sector though a large CH4 emitter in the developed countries, only contributed about 10% the total CH4 emission from all sources as most of the waste generated in India is allowed to decompose aerobically. N2O emissions from the use of nitrogen fertilizer were maximum in both the years (more than 60% of the total N2O). High emission intensities, in terms of CO2 equivalent, are in districts of Gangetic plains, delta areas, and the southern part of the country. These overlap with districts with large coal mines, mega power plants, intensive paddy cultivation and high fertilizer use. The study indicates that the 25 highest emitting districts account for more than 37% of all India CO2 equivalent GHG emissions. Electric power generation has emerged as the dominant source of GHG emissions, followed by emissions from steel and cement plants. It is therefore suggested, to target for GHG mitigation, the 40 largest coal-based thermal plants, five largest steel plants and 15 largest cement plants in India as the first step. 相似文献
3.
《Atmospheric environment (Oxford, England : 1994)》1999,33(4):633-646
Nitrogen oxides emissions in Asia during the period 1990–2020 due to anthropogenic activity are presented. These estimates are based on the RAINS-ASIA methodology (Foell et al., 1995, Acid Rain and Emission Reduction in Asia, World Bank), which includes a dynamic model for energy forecasts, and information on 6 energy sectors and 9 fuel types. The energy forecasts are combined with process emission factors to yield NOx emission estimates at the country level, the regional level, and on a 1 degree by 1 degree grid. In 1990 the total NOx emissions are estimated to be ∼19 Tg NO2, with China (43%), India (18%) and Japan (13%) accounting for 75% of the total. Emissions by fuel are dominated by burning of hard coal and emissions by economic activity are dominated by the power, transport, and industrial sectors. These new estimates of NOx emissions are compared with those published by Hameed and Dignon (1988, Atmospheric Environment 22, 441–449) and Akimoto and Narita (1994, Atmospheric Environment 28, 213–225). Future emissions under a no-further-control scenario are also presented. During the period 1990–2020 the NOx emissions increase by 350%, to ∼86 Tg NO2. The increase in NOx emissions by sector and end-use varies between countries, but in all countries this increase is strongest in the power and transport sectors. These results highlight the dynamic nature of energy use in Asia, and the need to take the rapid growth in NOx emissions in Asia into account in studies of air pollution and atmospheric chemistry. 相似文献
4.
The anthropogenic emissions of SO2 and NOx for 25 Asian countries east of Afghanistan and Pakistan have been calculated for 1975, 1980, 1985, 1986 and 1987 based on fuel consumption, sulfur content in fuels and emission factors for used fuels in each emission category. The provincial- and regional-based calculations have also been made for China and India. The total SO2 emissions in these parts of Asia have been calculated to be 18.3 and 29.1 Tg in 1975 and 1987, respectively. The calculated total NOx emissions were 9.4 and 15.5 Tg in 1975 and 1987, respectively. The SO2 and NOx emissions in East Asia (China, Japan, South Korea, North Korea and Taiwan) were 23.4 and 10.7 Tg in 1975 and 1987, respectively.Keyword: Emission inventories, sulfur dioxide emissions, nitrogen oxide emissions, Asian emissions, anthropogenic emissions. 相似文献
5.
《Atmospheric environment (Oxford, England : 1994)》2001,35(4):703-713
Sub-regional and sector level distribution of SO2 and NOx emissions inventories for India have been estimated for all the 466 Indian districts using base data for years 1990 and 1995. Although, national level emissions provide general guidelines for assessing mitigation alternatives, but significant regional and sectoral variability exist in Indian emissions. Districts reasonably capture this variability to a fine grid as 80% of these districts are smaller than 1°×1° resolution with 60% being smaller than even 1/2°×1/2°. Moreover, districts in India have well-established administrative and institutional mechanisms that would be useful for implementing and monitoring measures. District level emission estimates thus offer a finer regional scale inventory covering the combined interests of the scientific community and policy makers. The inventory assessment methodology adopted is similar to that prescribed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The sectoral decomposition at district level includes emissions from fossil fuel combustion, non-energy emissions from industrial activities and agriculture. Total SO2 and NOx emissions from India were 3542 and 2636 Gg, respectively (1990) and 4638 and 3462 Gg (1995) growing at annual rate of around 5.5%. The sectoral composition of SO2 emissions indicates a predominance of electric power generation sector (46%). Power and transport sector emissions equally dominate NOx emissions contributing nearly 30% each. However, majority of power plants are situated in predominantly rural districts while the latter are concentrated in large urban centers. Mitigation efforts for transport sector NOx emissions would therefore be higher. The district level analysis indicates diverse spatial distribution with the top 5% emitting districts contributing 46.5 and 33.3% of total national SO2 and NOx emissions, respectively. This skewed emission pattern, with a few districts, sectors and point sources emitting significant SO2 and NOx, offers mitigation flexibility to policy makers for cost-effective mitigation. 相似文献
6.
Joris Koornneef Andrea Ramirez Toon van Harmelen Arjan van Horssen Wim Turkenburg Andre Faaij 《Atmospheric environment (Oxford, England : 1994)》2010,44(11):1369-1385
This study quantifies the trade-offs and synergies between climate and air quality policy objectives for the European power and heat (P&H) sector. An overview is presented of the expected performance data of CO2 capture systems implemented at P&H plants, and the expected emission of key air pollutants, being: SO2, NOX, NH3, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and particulate matter (PM). The CO2 capture systems investigated include: post-combustion, oxyfuel combustion and pre-combustion capture.For all capture systems it was found that SO2, NOx and PM emissions are expected to be reduced or remain equal per unit of primary energy input compared to power plants without CO2 capture. Increase in primary energy input as a result of the energy penalty for CO2 capture may for some technologies and substances result in a net increase of emissions per kWh output. The emission of ammonia may increase by a factor of up to 45 per unit of primary energy input for post-combustion technologies. No data are available about the emission of VOCs from CO2 capture technologies.A simple model was developed and applied to analyse the impact of CO2 capture in the European P&H sector on the emission level of key air pollutants in 2030. Four scenarios were developed: one without CO2 capture and three with one dominantly implemented CO2 capture system, varying between: post-combustion, oxyfuel combustion and pre-combustion.The results showed a reduction in GHG emissions for the scenarios with CO2 capture compared to the baseline scenario between 12% and 20% in the EU 27 region in 2030. NOx emissions were 15% higher in the P&H sector in a scenario with predominantly post-combustion and lower when oxyfuel combustion (?16%) or pre-combustion (?20%) were implemented on a large scale. Large scale implementation of the post-combustion technology in 2030 may also result in significantly higher, i.e. increase by a factor of 28, NH3 emissions compared to scenarios with other CO2 capture options or without capture. SO2 emissions were very low for all scenarios that include large scale implementation of CO2 capture in 2030, i.e. a reduction varying between 27% and 41%. Particulate Matter emissions were found to be lower in the scenarios with CO2 capture. The scenario with implementation of the oxyfuel technology showed the lowest PM emissions followed by the scenario with a significant share allocated to pre-combustion, respectively ?59% and ?31%. The scenario with post-combustion capture resulted in PM emissions varying between 35% reduction and 26% increase. 相似文献
7.
Shuxiao Wang Wei Wei Li Du Guanghui Li Jiming Hao 《Atmospheric environment (Oxford, England : 1994)》2009,43(27):4148-4154
The research team analyzed the emission characteristics of gaseous pollutants, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs), from biomass combustion in improved stoves in rural China. The research included measurements from five biofuels and two stove types in the months of January, April, and September. The measurements were conducted according to U.S. EPA Method 25 using a collection system with a cooling device and two-level filters. CO, CO2, NOx, CH4 and THC analyzers were used for in-field, real-time emission measurements. The emission data indicate that gaseous pollutants were emitted at higher concentrations in the early combustion stage and lower concentrations in the later stage. CH4 and THC, as well as CO and CO2, presented positive relationships during the whole entire combustion process for all tests. The chemical profiles of flue gas samples were analyzed by GC/MS and GC/FID/ECD. Aromatics, carbonyls, and alkenes & alkynes dominated the VOC emissions, respectively accounting for 37%, 33%, and 23% of total VOC emissions by volume. Benzene was the most abundant VOC species, consisting of 17.3 ± 8.1% of VOCs, followed by propylene (11.3 ± 3.5%), acetone (10.8 ± 8.2%), toluene (7.3 ± 5.7%) and acetaldehyde (6.5 ± 7.3%). Carbon mass balance approach was applied to calculate CO, CO2, CH4, NOx, and VOC species emission factors. This analysis includes a discussion of the differences among VOC emission factors of different biofuel-stove combinations. 相似文献
8.
Min He Junyu Zheng Shasha Yin Yingyi Zhang 《Atmospheric environment (Oxford, England : 1994)》2011,45(24):4051-4059
Multi-year inventories of biomass burning emissions were established in the Pearl River Delta (PRD) region for the period 2003–2007 based on the collected activity data and emission factors. The results indicated that emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxide (NOx), ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4), organic carbon (OC), non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC), carbon monoxide (CO), and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) presented clear declining trends. Domestic biofuel burning was the major contributor, accounting for more than 60% of the total emissions. The preliminary temporal profiles were established with MODIS fire count information, showing that higher emissions were observed in winter (from November to March) than other seasons. The emissions were spatially allocated into grid cells with a resolution of 3 km × 3 km, using GIS-based land use data as spatial surrogates. Large amount of emissions were observed mostly in the less developed areas in the PRD region. The uncertainties in biomass burning emission estimates were quantified using Monte Carlo simulation; the results showed that there were higher uncertainties in organic carbon (OC) and elemental carbon (EC) emission estimates, ranging from ?71% to 133% and ?70% to 128%, and relatively lower uncertainties in SO2, NOx and CO emission estimates. The key uncertainty sources of the developed inventory included emission factors and parameters used for estimating biomass burning amounts. 相似文献
9.
《Atmospheric environment (Oxford, England : 1994)》2001,35(21):3585-3593
Real-world emissions of a traffic fleet on a transit route in Austria were determined in the Tauerntunnel experiment in October 1997. The total number of vehicles and the average speed was nearly the same on both measuring days (465 vehicles 30 min−1 and 76 km h−1 on the workday, 477 and 78 km h−1 on Sunday). The average workday fleet contained 17.6% heavy-duty vehicles (HDV) and the average Sunday fleet 2.8% HDV resulting in up to four times higher emission rates per vehicle per km on the workday than on Sunday for most of the regulated components (CO2, CO, NOx, SO2, and particulate matter-PM10). Emission rates of NMVOC accounted for 200 mg vehicle−1 km−1 on both days. The relative contributions of light-duty vehicles (LDV) and HDV to the total emissions indicated that aldehydes, BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes), and alkanes are mainly produced by LDV, while HDV dominated emissions of CO, NOx, SO2, and PM10. Emissions of NOx caused by HDV were 16,100 mg vehicle−1 km−1 (as NO2). Produced by LDV they were much lower at 360 mg vehicle−1 km−1. Comparing the emission rates to the results that were obtained by the 1988 experiment at the same place significant changes in the emission levels of hydrocarbons and CO, which accounted 1997 to only 10% of the levels in 1988, were noticed. However, the decrease of PM has been modest leading to values of 80 and 60% of the levels in 1988 on the workday and on Sunday, respectively. Emission rates of NOx determined on the workday in 1997 were 3130 mg vehicle−1 km−1 and even higher than in 1988 (2630 mg vehicle−1 km−1), presumable due to the increase of the HD-traffic. 相似文献
10.
《Atmospheric environment (Oxford, England : 1994)》2002,36(4):677-697
A comprehensive, spatially resolved (0.25°×0.25°) fossil fuel consumption database and emissions inventory was constructed, for India, for the first time. Emissions of sulphur dioxide and aerosol chemical constituents were estimated for 1996–1997 and extrapolated to the Indian Ocean Experiment (INDOEX) study period (1998–1999). District level consumption of coal/lignite, petroleum and natural gas in power plants, industrial, transportation and domestic sectors was 9411 PJ, with major contributions from coal (54%) followed by diesel (18%). Emission factors for various pollutants were derived using India specific fuel characteristics and information on combustion/air pollution control technologies for the power and industrial sectors. Domestic and transportation emission factors, appropriate for Indian source characteristics, were compiled from literature. SO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion for 1996–1997 were 4.0 Tg SO2 yr−1, with 756 large point sources (e.g. utilities, iron and steel, fertilisers, cement, refineries and petrochemicals and non-ferrous metals), accounting for 62%. PM2.5 emitted was 0.5 and 2.0 Tg yr−1 for the 100% and the 50% control scenario, respectively, applied to coal burning in the power and industrial sectors. Coal combustion was the major source of PM2.5 (92%) primarily consisting of fly ash, accounting for 98% of the “inorganic fraction” emissions (difference between PM2.5 and black carbon+organic matter) of 1.6 Tg yr−1. Black carbon emissions were estimated at 0.1 Tg yr−1, with 58% from diesel transport, and organic matter emissions at 0.3 Tg yr−1, with 48% from brick-kilns. Fossil fuel consumption and emissions peaked at the large point industrial sources and 22 cities, with elevated area fluxes in northern and western India. The spatial resolution of this inventory makes it suitable for regional-scale aerosol-climate studies. These results are compared to previous studies and differences discussed. Measurements of emission factors for Indian sources are needed to further refine these estimates. 相似文献
11.
Ernestos Tzannatos 《Atmospheric environment (Oxford, England : 1994)》2010,44(18):2194-2202
The existing and emerging international and European policy framework for the reduction of ship exhaust emissions dictates the need to produce reliable national, regional and global inventories in order to monitor emission trends and consequently provide the necessary support for future policy making. Furthermore, the inventories of ship exhaust emissions constitute the basis upon which their external costs are estimated in an attempt to highlight the economic burden they impose upon the society and facilitate the cost–benefit analysis of the proposed emission abatement technologies, operational measures and market-based instruments prior to their implementation.The case of Greece is of particular interest mainly because the dense ship traffic within the Greek seas directly imposes the impact of its exhaust emission pollutants (NOx, SO2 and PM) upon the highly populated, physically sensitive and culturally precious Greek coastline, as well as upon the land and seas of Greece in general, whereas the contribution of Greece in the global CO2 inventory at a time of climatic change awareness cannot be ignored. In this context, this paper presents the contribution of Greece in ship exhaust emissions of CO2, NOx, SO2 and PM from domestic and international shipping over the last 25 years (1984–2008), utilizing the fuel-based (fuel sales) emission methodology. Furthermore, the ship exhaust emissions generated within the Greek seas and their externalities are estimated for the year 2008, through utilizing the fuel-based (fuel sales) approach for domestic shipping and the activity-based (ship traffic) approach for international shipping.On this basis, it was found that during the 1984 to 2008 period the fuel-based (fuel sales) ship emission inventory for Greece increased at an average annual rate of 2.85%. In 2008, the CO2, NOx, SO2 and PM emissions reached 12.9 million tons (of which 12.4 million tons of CO2) and their externalities were found to be around 3.1 billion euro. With regard to shipping within the Greek seas, the utilization of the fuel-based (fuel sales) analysis for domestic shipping and the activity-based (ship traffic) analysis for international shipping shows that the ship-generated emissions reached 7.4 million tons (of which 7 million tons of CO2) and their externalities were estimated at 2.95 billion euro. Finally, the internalization of external costs for domestic shipping was found to produce an increase of 12.96 and 2.71 euro per passenger and transported ton, respectively. 相似文献
12.
Introduction
It is predicted that demand for electricity in Islamic Republic of Iran will continue to increase dramatically in the future due to the rapid pace of economic development leading to construction of new power plants. At the present time, most of electricity is generated by burning fossil fuels which result in emission of great deal of pollutants and greenhouse gases (GHG) such as SO2, NOx, and CO2. The power industry is the largest contributor to these emissions. Due to minimal emission of GHG by renewable and nuclear power plants, they are most suitable replacements for the fossil-fueled power plants. However, the nuclear power plants are more suitable than renewable power plants in providing baseload electricity. The Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant, the only nuclear power plant of Iran, is expected to start operation in 2010. This paper attempts to interpret the role of Bushehr nuclear power plant (BNPP) in CO2 emission trend of power plant sector in Iran. 相似文献13.
Siyue Li Quanfa Zhang 《Environmental science and pollution research international》2014,21(23):13636-13641
Substantial greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from hydropower reservoirs have been of great concerns recently, yet the significant carbon emitters of drawdown area and reservoir downstream (including spillways and turbines as well as river reaches below dams) have not been included in global carbon budget. Here, we revisit GHG emission from hydropower reservoirs by considering reservoir surface area, drawdown zone and reservoir downstream. Our estimates demonstrate around 301.3 Tg carbon dioxide (CO2)/year and 18.7 Tg methane (CH4)/year from global hydroelectric reservoirs, which are much higher than recent observations. The sum of drawdown and downstream emission, which is generally overlooked, represents 42 % CO2 and 67 % CH4 of the total emissions from hydropower reservoirs. Accordingly, the global average emissions from hydropower are estimated to be 92 g CO2/kWh and 5.7 g CH4/kWh. Nonetheless, global hydroelectricity could currently reduce approximate 2,351 Tg CO2eq/year with respect to fuel fossil plant alternative. The new findings show a substantial revision of carbon emission from the global hydropower reservoirs. 相似文献
14.
《Atmospheric environment (Oxford, England : 1994)》2007,41(38):8486-8499
We have used a global version of the Regional Air Pollution Information and Simulation (RAINS) model to estimate anthropogenic emissions of the air pollution precursors sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), primary carbonaceous particles of black carbon (BC), organic carbon (OC) and methane (CH4). We developed two scenarios to constrain the possible range of future emissions. As a baseline, we investigated the future emission levels that would result from the implementation of the already adopted emission control legislation in each country, based on the current national expectations of economic development. Alternatively, we explored the lowest emission levels that could be achieved with the most advanced emission control technologies that are on the market today. This paper describes data sources and our assumptions on activity data, emission factors and the penetration of pollution control measures. We estimate that, with current expectations on future economic development and with the present air quality legislation, global anthropogenic emissions of SO2 and NOx would slightly decrease between 2000 and 2030. For carbonaceous particles and CO, reductions between 20% and 35% are computed, while for CH4 an increase of about 50% is calculated. Full application of currently available emission control technologies, however, could achieve substantially lower emissions levels, with decreases up to 30% for CH4, 40% for CO and BC, and nearly 80% for SO2. 相似文献
15.
Joachim Maes Jo Vliegen Karen Van de Vel Stijn Janssen Felix Deutsch Koen De Ridder Clemens Mensink 《Atmospheric environment (Oxford, England : 1994)》2009,43(6):1246-1254
CORINAIR atmospheric emission inventories are frequently used input data for air quality models with a domain situated in Europe. In CORINAIR emission inventories, sources are broken down over 11 major source categories. This paper presents spatial surrogates for the disaggregation of CORINAIR atmospheric emission inventories for input of air pollutants and particulate matter to grid or polygon based air quality model domains inside Europe. The basis for the disaggregation model was the CLC2000 land cover data to which statistical weights were added. Weights were population census data for residential emissions, employment statistics for agricultural and industrial area emissions, livestock statistics for ammonia emissions and annual aircraft movements for emissions realized by air transport. Additional road and off-road network information was used to disaggregate emissions realized by traffic. A comparison of top down produced emission estimates with spatially resolved national emission data for The Netherlands and the United Kingdom gave confidence in the present spatial surrogates as a tool for the top down production of atmospheric emission maps. Explained variance at a spatial resolution of 5 km was >70% for CO, NMVOC and NOx, >60% for PM10 and almost 50% for SO2. 相似文献
16.
David C. Carslaw Paul S. Goodman Frank C.H. Lai Oliver M.J. Carsten 《Atmospheric environment (Oxford, England : 1994)》2010,44(23):2674-2680
In recent years sophisticated technologies have been developed to control vehicle speed based on the type of road the vehicle is driven on using Global Positioning Systems and in-car technology that can alter the speed of the vehicle. While reducing the speed of road vehicles is primarily of interest from a safety perspective, vehicle speed is also an important determinant of vehicle emissions and thus these technologies can be expected to have impacts on a range of exhaust emissions. This work analyses the results from a very large, comprehensive field trial that used 20 instrumented vehicles with and without speed control driven almost 500,000 km measuring vehicle speed at 10 Hz. We develop individual vehicle modal emissions models for CO2 for 30 Euro III and Euro IV cars at a 1-Hz time resolution. Generalized Additive Models were used to describe how emissions from individual vehicles vary depending on their driving conditions, taking account of variable interactions and time-lag effects. We quantify the impact that vehicle speed control has on-vehicle emissions of CO2 by road type, fuel type and driver behaviour. Savings in CO2 of ≈6% were found on average for motorway-type roads when mandatory speed control was used compared with base case conditions. For most other types of road, speed control has very little effect on emissions of CO2 and in some cases can result in increased emissions for low-speed limit urban roads. We also find that there is on average a 20% difference in CO2 emission between the lowest and highest emitting driver, which highlights the importance of driver behaviour in general as a means of reducing emissions of CO2. 相似文献
17.
Jian Hua Chih-Wen Cheng Daw-Shang Hwang 《Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association (1995)》2019,69(2):131-144
This study proposes an easy-to-apply method, the Total Life Cycle Emission Model (TLCEM), to calculate the total emissions from shipping and help ship management groups assess the impact on emissions caused by their capital investment or operation decisions. Using TLCEM, we present the total emissions of air pollutants and greenhouse gases (GHGs) during the 25-yr life cycle of 10 post-Panamax containerships under slow steaming conditions. The life cycle consists of steel production, shipbuilding, crude oil extraction and transportation, fuel refining, bunkering, and ship operation. We calculate total emissions from containerships and compare the effect of emission reduction by using various fuels. The results can be used to differentiate the emissions from various processes and to assess the effectiveness of various reduction approaches. Critical pollutants and GHGs emitted from each process are calculated. If the containerships use heavy fuel oil (HFO), emissions of CO2 total 2.79 million tonnes (Mt), accounting for 95.37% of total emissions, followed by NOx and SOx emissions,which account for 2.25% and 1.30%, respectively.The most significant emissions are from the operation of the ship and originate from the main engine (ME).When fuel is switched to 100% natural gas (NG), SOx, PM10, and CO2 emissions show remarkable reductions of 98.60%, 99.06%, and 21.70%, respectively. Determining the emission factor of each process is critical for estimating the total emissions. The estimated emission factors were compared with the values adopted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO).The proposed TLCEM may contribute to more accurate estimates of total life cycle emissions from global shipping.
Implications: We propose a total life cycle emissions model for 10 post-Panamax container ships. Using heavy fuel oil, emissions of CO2 total 2.79 Mt, accounting for approximately 95% of emissions, followed by NOx and SOx emissions. Using 100% natural gas, SOx, PM10, and CO2 emissions reduce by 98.6%, 99.1%, and 21.7%, respectively. NOx emissions increase by 1.14% when running a dual fuel engine at low load in natural gas mode. 相似文献
18.
Javed Iqbal Shan Lin Ronggui Hu Minglei Feng 《Atmospheric environment (Oxford, England : 1994)》2009,43(37):5865-5875
Different land uses in subtropics play an important role in regulating the global environmental changes. To reduce uncertainties of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of agricultural soils in subtropical ecosystem, a four years campaign was started to determine the temporal GHG (CO2 and CH4) fluxes from seven sites of four land use types (1 vegetable field, 3 uplands, 2 orchards, 1 pine forest). The mean annual budgets of CO2, and CH4 were 6.5~10.5 Mg CO2 ha?1 yr?1, and +0.47 ~ ?2.37 kg CH4 ha?1 yr?1, respectively. Pine forest had significantly lower CO2 emission and higher CH4 uptake than agriculture land uses. Tilled orchard emitted more CO2 and oxidized less CH4 than non-tilled orchard. Upland crops had higher CO2 emissions than orchards, while abrupt differences of CH4 uptake were observed between upland crops and orchards. Every year, the climate was warm and wet from April to September (the hot–humid season) and became cool and dry from October to March (the cool–dry season). Driven by seasonality of temperature and WFPS, CO2 fluxes were significantly higher in the hot–humid season than in cool–dry season. Soil temperature, WFPS, NO3?–N and NH4+–N contents interactively explained CH4 uptake which was significantly higher in cool–dry season than in hot–humid season. We conclude that soil C fluxes from different land uses are strongly under control of different climatic predictors along with soil nutrient status, which interact in conjunction with each other to supply the readily available substrates. 相似文献
19.
Regional-specific emission inventory for NH3, N2O, and CH4 via animal farming in South, Southeast, and East Asia 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Kazuyo Yamaji Toshimasa Ohara Hajime Akimoto 《Atmospheric environment (Oxford, England : 1994)》2004,38(40):7111
Ammonia, nitrous oxide, and methane emission from animal farming of South, Southeast, and East Asia, in 2000, was estimated at about 4.7 Tg NH3–N, 0.51 Tg N2O–N, and 29.9 Tg CH4, respectively, using the FAO database and countries’ statistic databases as activity data, and emission factors taking account of regional characteristics. Most of these atmospheric components, up to 60–80%, were produced in China and India. Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Indonesia, which were large source countries next to China and India, contributed more than a few percent of total emission of each atmospheric component. The largest emission livestock were cattle whose contribution was considerably high in South, Southeast, and East Asia; more than one-fourth of ammonia and nitrous oxide emissions: more than half of methane emission. The other major livestock for nitrous oxide and ammonia emissions were pigs. For methane emission, buffaloes were second source livestock. To provide spatial distributions of these gases, the emissions of county and district level were allocated into each 0.5° grid by means of the weighting by high-resolution land cover datasets. The regions with considerable high emissions of all components were able to be found at the Ganges delta and the Yellow River basin. The spatial distributions for ammonia and nitrous oxide emissions were similar but had a substantial difference from methane distribution. 相似文献
20.
《Atmospheric environment (Oxford, England : 1994)》2007,41(14):3095-3107
Motor vehicles are one of the largest sources of air pollutants worldwide. Despite their importance, motor vehicle emissions are inadequately understood and quantified, esp. in developing countries. In this study, the real-world emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxide (NO) were measured using an on-road remote sensing system at five sites in Hangzhou, China in 2004 and 2005. Average emission factors of CO, HC and NOx for petrol vehicles of different model year, technology class and vehicle type were calculated in grams of pollutant per unit of fuel use (g l−1) from approximately 32,260 petrol vehicles. Because the availability of data used in traditional on-road mobile source estimation methodologies is limited in China, fuel-based approach was implemented to estimate motor vehicle emissions using fuel sales as a measure of vehicle activity, and exhaust emissions factors from remote sensing measurements. The fuel-based exhaust emission inventories were also compared with the results from the recent international vehicle emission (IVE) model. Results show that petrol vehicle fleet in Hangzhou has significantly high CO emissions, relatively high HC and low NOx, with the average emission factors of 193.07±15.63, 9.51±2.40 and 5.53±0.48 g l−1, respectively. For year 2005 petrol vehicles exhaust emissions contributed with 182,013±16,936, 9107±2255 and 5050±480 metric ton yr−1 of CO, HC and NOx, respectively. The inventories are 45.5% higher, 6.6% higher and 53.7% lower for CO, HC and NOx, respectively, than the estimates using IVE travel-based model. In addition, a number of insights about the emission distributions and formation mechanisms have been obtained from an in-depth analysis of these results. 相似文献